The Furlough Mutiny and the Struggle for Cassino in the Second World War

JONATHAN FENNELL Jonathan Fennell is author of Fighting the People’s War: The British and Commonwealth Armies and the Second World War, which was published by Cambridge University Press in February 2019. Three quarters of a century ago, soldiers of the British and Commonwealth Armies were embroiled in one of the iconic battles of the Second… Read More The Furlough Mutiny and the Struggle for Cassino in the Second World War

defenceresearchLeave a comment

What is Military Learning in the C21st?

LOUISE KETTLE Dr Louise Kettle is an Assistant Professor at the School of Politics and International Relations at the University of Nottingham. Her research examines how lessons from history are learned and the relationship between Britain and the Middle East. Her latest book Learning from the History of British Interventions in the Middle East is… Read More What is Military Learning in the C21st?

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Elusion of Critique: On Developing Critical Approaches in Defence Discourse

MATT LEWIS Matt Lewis is a PhD student at the Defence Studies Department and an Infantry Battalion Commander in the British Army. His research focuses on decolonising the concept of violence, with specific reference to Algeria and Critical Theory. He tweets in a personal capacity as @mattlewisfab. Accounts from 20th Century graduates of NATO Staff Colleges… Read More The Elusion of Critique: On Developing Critical Approaches in Defence Discourse

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Necessary Death of the One-size-fits-all Approach: Transformative Pedagogy in Higher Military Education

EMILIE CLERET Emilie Alice Cléret is Head of the English Department within the Enseignement militaire supérieur – the French Higher Military Education. She designs the English courses for the Ecole de guerre– the French War College – and for the Centre des hautes etudes militaires– the higher command and staff course. You can read more… Read More The Necessary Death of the One-size-fits-all Approach: Transformative Pedagogy in Higher Military Education

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Discussing Defence: Cuthbert Headlam and the Army Quarterly

JIM BEACH Dr Jim Beach of the University of Northampton explains the birth and early years of an important forum for interwar military debate. Jim has edited the military papers of Lieutenant Colonel Cuthbert Headlam for the Army Records Society. On 24 February ninety-nine years ago, two former British army officers sat down and discussed… Read More Discussing Defence: Cuthbert Headlam and the Army Quarterly

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Use Responsibly: Twitter and the Ideas Network

HEBER ACKLAND Commodore Ackland is a Royal Navy Officer and UK Defence Academy staff member, you can follow him on Twitter at @HeberAckland. Recently I was scrolling through the online version of the Washington Post when I was drawn to a striking headline describing twitter as the crystal meth of the newsrooms, ‘a drug [sic:… Read More Use Responsibly: Twitter and the Ideas Network

defenceresearch2 Comments

‘Your Boy’s Future’ – Apprentice Training and Social Mobility in the Early Royal Air Force

SOPHY GARDNER Sophy Gardner is a PhD student at the University of Exeter, and a former RAF Wing Commander of twenty-years experience. You can follow her on Twitter @sophygardner In many ways, the newly created RAF’s approach to the resource and recruitment challenges of the early inter-war period was highly modern, presaging later educational reforms such… Read More ‘Your Boy’s Future’ – Apprentice Training and Social Mobility in the Early Royal Air Force

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Robert Foley – Defence-In-Depth

Category: Robert Foley

Conference Observations: Reimagining the Future of Professional Military Education

Dr ROBERT T. FOLEY Over the past year, there have been some very insightful and provocative contributions to the debate about professional military education, with War on the Rocks providing an important platform for this debate. Driven by perceived changes to the functioning of the international system and by notional challenges posed by emerging technologies, armed… Read More Conference Observations: Reimagining the Future of Professional Military Education

Robert T. FoleyLeave a comment

Reflections on the First World War: The German Perspective

by Dr Robert T. Foley The First World War came to an ignominious end for Imperial Germany. On 6 November, Matthais Erzberger, a Centerist politician, was appointed to the commission to negotiate an armistice with the Western allies. Germany’s strategic and internal political situation was dire, as its allies sued for peace and mutiny and… Read More Reflections on the First World War: The German Perspective

Robert T. FoleyLeave a comment

The Battle of the Somme and German ‘Battle Management’

DR. ROBERT T. FOLEY On 1 July 1916, the infantry of British 4th Army and the French 6th Army launched what their strategic leadership hoped would be the beginning stages of a decisive campaign against the German army in northeastern France. Initially, the German strategic leadership welcomed the start of the Anglo-French  offensive on the… Read More The Battle of the Somme and German ‘Battle Management’

Robert T. Foley3 Comments

The Battle of Verdun and German Offensive Tactics in 1916

This is the third of three posts covering German planning for Operation Gericht, their offensive at Verdun. This month marks the 100th anniversary of the beginning of this battle, which would last, including French counter-offensives, until the end of 1916. Although it is not as well remembered in Britain today, the ‘hell of Verdun’ left… Read More The Battle of Verdun and German Offensive Tactics in 1916

Robert T. Foley5 Comments

The Battle of Verdun and German Operational Art in 1916

This is the second of three posts covering German planning for Operation Gericht, their offensive at Verdun. This month marks the 100th anniversary of the beginning of this battle, which would last, including French counter-offensives, until the end of 1916. Although it is not as well remembered in Britain today, the ‘hell of Verdun’ left… Read More The Battle of Verdun and German Operational Art in 1916

Robert T. Foley2 Comments

The Battle of Verdun and German Strategy in 1916

This is the first of three posts covering German planning for Operation Gericht, their offensive at Verdun. This month marks the 100th anniversary of the beginning of this battle, which would last, including French counter-offensives, until the end of 1916. Although it is not as well remembered in Britain today, the ‘hell of Verdun’ left… Read More The Battle of Verdun and German Strategy in 1916

Robert T. Foley7 Comments
#####EOF##### September 2016 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: September 2016

Keeping the Genie in the Bottle: RNAS Anti-Submarine Warfare, 1912-1916

ALEXANDER HOWLETT Throughout its long history, the Royal Navy has been both an innovator of, and adapter to, technological change. By the end of the 19th century, the sailing warship of Nelson’s day had been transformed into the all steel construction, reciprocating engine, electric powered and radio equipped, battleship. As formidable an implement of sea… Read More Keeping the Genie in the Bottle: RNAS Anti-Submarine Warfare, 1912-1916

defenceresearch2 Comments

Youth in peace building and the legacy of interventions

Dr Sukanya Podder This post is based on Dr Podder’s article ‘The power in-between: youth’s subaltern agency and the post-conflict everyday‘ and book titled Youth in Conflict and Peacebuilding: Mobilization, Reintegration and Reconciliation. The latter connects with issues of youth agency and transformative capacity in post-conflict environments. Over the past three decades we have seen the development… Read More Youth in peace building and the legacy of interventions

defenceresearchLeave a comment

From Sparta to Space: Astropolitics and IR Theory

DR BLEDDYN BOWEN What does the world of Thucydides have in common with that of Wehrner von Braun or Sergei Korolev; of the realm of the trireme with the Delta IV rocket? Much like the popular misconception that satellites in orbit have ‘escaped’ the influence of Earth’s gravity, there is a common perception that outer… Read More From Sparta to Space: Astropolitics and IR Theory

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Command, Leadership & Management: the Power of Perception

This short-series of posts coincides with the Command, Leadership and Management phase of the ACSC. In it, members of the Department reflect upon aspects of the leadership, broadly defined. DR DAVID MORGAN-OWEN Rarely has an individual whose most famous achievements came in the realm of military administration captured the historical imagination in the manner of Admiral… Read More Command, Leadership & Management: the Power of Perception

davidmorganowen1 Comment

Command, Leadership & Management: Beyond Biographies

This short-series of posts coincides with the Command, Leadership and Management phase of the ACSC. In it, members of the Department reflect upon aspects of the leadership, broadly defined. ANNA BRINKMAN Military and political leaders, like all objects and subjects of historical analysis, come in and out of vogue depending on the political undercurrents which… Read More Command, Leadership & Management: Beyond Biographies

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Syria’s ceasefire and the challenges of war termination

DR CHRIS TUCK The current ceasefire in Syria is under significant pressure and claims of local violations continue to grow. It has, at least, succeeded in reducing the scale of the fighting, which is welcome. The war has, since 2011, led to the deaths of over 300,000 people and displaced internally, or made refugees of,… Read More Syria’s ceasefire and the challenges of war termination

defenceresearch1 Comment

Testing times for Uzbekistan

DR TRACEY GERMAN The death of Uzbek President Islam Karimov, the longest serving ruler in the post-Soviet space, has triggered concern about the stability of the Central Asian country. In power since 1989, Karimov’s authoritarian rule has undoubtedly contributed to relative stability, whilst also hindering the development of a robust economy and functioning civil society.… Read More Testing times for Uzbekistan

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Why Islamic State is wrong: Sykes-Picot is not responsible for controversial borders in the Middle East – but the British military is (Part 2)

This is Part Two of a two part series on the topic by Dr. Rod Thornton. Dr Rod Thornton Throughout Ottoman times and from probably much earlier, it was the agricultural produce of the Mosul vilayet that fed the people of the less fertile vilayets of Baghdad and Basra. Finished-goods trade went the other way.… Read More Why Islamic State is wrong: Sykes-Picot is not responsible for controversial borders in the Middle East – but the British military is (Part 2)

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Why Islamic State is wrong: Sykes-Picot is not responsible for controversial borders in the Middle East – but the British military is (Part 1)

This is Part One of a two part series on Sykes-Picot and the controversial borders of the Middle East. Dr Rod Thornton The Sykes-Picot Agreement, reached during the First World War by Britain and France, has recently been given renewed prominence. This has come about with the claim by Islamic State (IS) that this accord… Read More Why Islamic State is wrong: Sykes-Picot is not responsible for controversial borders in the Middle East – but the British military is (Part 1)

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### History – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: History

Gretton: Reflecting on his Enduring Lesson about Sea Control

DR ANDREW TAYLOR November 11this a significant day in the calendars of the British and Commonwealth states. It is principally Remembrance Day, commemorating the end of the First World War and reflecting upon the great cost in human life. It is also a significant date for scholars of maritime strategy. November 11th1992 was the date… Read More Gretton: Reflecting on his Enduring Lesson about Sea Control

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Commemorating the centenary of the First World War: launch of a War and Society special edition

DR HELEN MCCARTNEY Centenaries can be moments of reflection for states and their people.  They provide an opportunity to re-consider existing narratives about past events and confirm or repurpose their meaning to inform individual and collective identities as well as important political and social relationships.  This premise was the starting point for a symposium organized… Read More Commemorating the centenary of the First World War: launch of a War and Society special edition

defenceresearch1 Comment

A FORGOTTEN INTERVENTION: OPERATION HYPERION AND BRITISH PEACEKEEPERS IN LEBANON, 1982-1984.

DR GERAINT HUGHES In August the Round Table, the Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs, will publish a special edition on ‘The Commonwealth and Peacekeeping’, produced to mark over sixty years of peacekeeping operations since the establishment of UNEF after the 1956 Suez Crisis. This edition will contain articles on Gender and Peacekeeping, on Oceania’s role… Read More A FORGOTTEN INTERVENTION: OPERATION HYPERION AND BRITISH PEACEKEEPERS IN LEBANON, 1982-1984.

defenceresearchLeave a comment

When Britain meets Free France: Coalition Warfare in French Equatorial Africa, January to August 1941

  Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Over the coming weeks, we will be posting entries written by some of the conference’s presenters. DR JULIE VALADE Dr Julie Valade is… Read More When Britain meets Free France: Coalition Warfare in French Equatorial Africa, January to August 1941

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The French Recruitment of Colonial Soldiers in Morocco after the German Occupation of Paris during the Second World War

Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Over the coming weeks, we will be posting entries written by some of the conference’s presenters.  Otman Bychou Otman Bychou is a teacher of… Read More The French Recruitment of Colonial Soldiers in Morocco after the German Occupation of Paris during the Second World War

defenceresearch1 Comment

Amphetamines and the Second World War: Stimulating Interest in Drugs and Warfare

This is one in a series of occasional posts from scholars outside of the Defence Studies Department. If you would be interested to contribute to this series please contact the editors: Dr Ben Kienzle and Dr David Morgan-Owen.  DR JAMES PUGH James Pugh is a Lecturer in Modern History at the University of Birmingham, UK. His… Read More Amphetamines and the Second World War: Stimulating Interest in Drugs and Warfare

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Conference Report – When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective

You can learn more about the Second World War Research Group on their website and by following them on Twitter (@SWWresearch). DR RICHARD HAMMOND Since its formation in 2014, the Second World War Research Group has grown exponentially in terms of its membership, brand and executive.  From a humble beginning under two Co-Directors and a membership numbering… Read More Conference Report – When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective

defenceresearch7 Comments
#####EOF##### March 2018 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: March 2018

2018 – will the year of the Royal Air Force be any better than 2017 was for the Royal Navy?

PROF ANDREW DORMAN, PROF MATTHEW UTTLEY, MS ARMIDA VAN RIJ, & DR BENEDICT WILKINSON If 2017 was the ‘Year of the Royal Navy (RN)’ then presumably 2018 is the de facto year of the Royal Air Force (RAF) as it celebrates 100 years since its formation on 1st April 1918. For the RN, 2017 proved more… Read More 2018 – will the year of the Royal Air Force be any better than 2017 was for the Royal Navy?

defenceresearchLeave a comment

How does the Migration Crisis Change the Roles of Militaries?

DR BENCE NEMETH While recently most of the attention has been paid to the Baltic States and Poland concerning defence matters in Europe, as they are deemed to be the most vulnerable NATO members for Russian intervention, a silent transformation has happened in the military affairs of other NATO and EU member states too. As… Read More How does the Migration Crisis Change the Roles of Militaries?

benkienzleLeave a comment

The New Political Islam: Human Rights, Democracy and Justice

DR. EMMANUEL KARAGIANNIS Editorial note: This blog post is based on Dr. Karagiannis’ new book on The New Political Islam: Human Rights, Democracy and Justice. The rise of political Islam is a modern phenomenon characterized by heterogeneity and complexity. It can best be described as a social movement embodied by three generations: the Islamist nationalists,… Read More The New Political Islam: Human Rights, Democracy and Justice

benkienzleLeave a comment
#####EOF##### August 2014 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: August 2014

The Twentieth Century’s Second European War

by DR ANDREW STEWART Just before 9 a.m. on 3 September 1939 the British Ambassador in Berlin, Sir Neville Henderson, had arrived at the Foreign Ministry to deliver an ultimatum. This final opportunity for Germany to withdraw its military forces from neighbouring Poland, which had been attacked and invaded on 1 September, was delivered to… Read More The Twentieth Century’s Second European War

Andrew StewartLeave a comment

Welcome to Defence-In-Depth

Welcome to Defence-in-Depth, the research blog of the Defence Studies Department, King’s College London, offering in-depth contemporary and historical analysis of the issues behind defence. The Defence Studies Department is based at the Joint Services Command and Staff College of the UK Defence Academy in Shrivenham, Oxfordshire. It is an interdisciplinary department comprising a mixture… Read More Welcome to Defence-In-Depth

Robert T. FoleyLeave a comment
#####EOF##### May 2016 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: May 2016

THE BATTLE OF JUTLAND: AN ‘UNPALATABLE’ RESULT

This is the second in a series of posts connected to a King’s College First World War Research Group and Corbett Centre Event to mark the centenary of the Battle of Jutland.  DR JOHN BROOKS After an industrial career in computing and telecommunications, John Brooks published his first historical paper – on circular dividing engines – in 1992, when he… Read More THE BATTLE OF JUTLAND: AN ‘UNPALATABLE’ RESULT

defenceresearch2 Comments

Was the Anglo-German Naval Race a Mirage?

This is the first in a series of posts connected to a King’s College First World War Research Group and Corbett Centre Event to mark the centenary of the Battle of Jutland.  PROF MATTHEW S. SELIGMANN Matthew S Seligmann is Professor of Naval History at Brunel University London. He has written widely on Anglo-German relations before the First World… Read More Was the Anglo-German Naval Race a Mirage?

defenceresearch1 Comment

Why ‘defence’ does not serve as a suitable argument in the Brexit debate

DR BEN KIENZLE Only one month remains until British voters can decide if the UK should leave or stay in the EU. Naturally, the debate about the benefits and disadvantages of British membership in the EU is heating up. Almost each day, the supporters of ‘Brexit’ and ‘Bremain’ vie with each other for the best… Read More Why ‘defence’ does not serve as a suitable argument in the Brexit debate

defenceresearch2 Comments

NATO and the challenges of implementing effective deterrence vis-à-vis Russia

PROFESSOR WYN BOWEN In the run up to the July 2016 NATO Summit in Warsaw, the British and Polish Embassies in Copenhagen, hosted by the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, organised a one-day conference on ‘Transforming NATO in an Unpredictable Security Environment’. At the event in March I gave a talk on a topic related… Read More NATO and the challenges of implementing effective deterrence vis-à-vis Russia

defenceresearchLeave a comment

A Capital Mistake: Evidence and Defence in the Brexit Debates

Professor Matthew Uttley & Dr. Benedict Wilkinson In one of his more exasperated moments, Sherlock Holmes turns to his long-term companion, Dr. Watson and chides him for his impatience, saying ‘It is a capital mistake to theorize before you have all the evidence. It biases the judgment.’ Strong words they may be, but wise ones… Read More A Capital Mistake: Evidence and Defence in the Brexit Debates

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Air Power: Strength and Weaknesses

This is the first in a series of occasional posts from scholars outside of the Defence Studies Department. If you would be interested to contribute to this series please contact the editors: Dr Amir Kamel and Dr David Morgan-Owen.  Prof. Jeremy Black Jeremy Black studied at studied at Queens’ College Cambridge, St John’s College Oxford, and Merton… Read More Air Power: Strength and Weaknesses

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Strategy – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Strategy

Games, Strategy, and the Conflict-Cooperation Spectrum

DR DAVID BLAGDEN David is Lecturer in International Security and Strategy at the University of Exeter’s Strategy and Security Institute. This post is intended to summarise and promote themes from his just-published book (co-edited with Mark de Rond), Games: Conflict, Competition, and Cooperation (Cambridge University Press, 2019). You can follow him on Twitter here. Why plug a… Read More Games, Strategy, and the Conflict-Cooperation Spectrum

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Reflections on the First World War: The German Perspective

by Dr Robert T. Foley The First World War came to an ignominious end for Imperial Germany. On 6 November, Matthais Erzberger, a Centerist politician, was appointed to the commission to negotiate an armistice with the Western allies. Germany’s strategic and internal political situation was dire, as its allies sued for peace and mutiny and… Read More Reflections on the First World War: The German Perspective

Robert T. FoleyLeave a comment

Gretton: Reflecting on his Enduring Lesson about Sea Control

DR ANDREW TAYLOR November 11this a significant day in the calendars of the British and Commonwealth states. It is principally Remembrance Day, commemorating the end of the First World War and reflecting upon the great cost in human life. It is also a significant date for scholars of maritime strategy. November 11th1992 was the date… Read More Gretton: Reflecting on his Enduring Lesson about Sea Control

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Conference Report: 2018 Vienna Conference on Strategy

CHIARA LIBISELLER A few new concepts have come to dominate the more recent Western discourses on security and defence, both in the academic and practitioners’ sectors; these concepts include ‘hybrid war’, ‘cyber war’, ‘narratives’ and ‘resilience’.[i] They are invoked to help us understand, explain and react to threats that Europe and the United States are… Read More Conference Report: 2018 Vienna Conference on Strategy

benkienzleLeave a comment

Sex and the Statesman

DR KEN PAYNE I’m writing a new book, provisionally titled Sex and Statecraft.My research question: is there something particularly ‘male’ about modern international politics—especially in matters of war and diplomacy? I think there is, and that we can profitably learn something about it from evolutionary psychology, especially from theories of sexual selection. Why are most… Read More Sex and the Statesman

defenceresearch1 Comment

UK Sanction Policies after Brexit: A Strategic Perspective

BEN KIENZLE is a Lecturer in Defence Studies at King’s College London In recent months, the European Union Committee of the House of Lords has published its report on sanctions after Brexit (followed two months later by an official government response). The report highlights quite rightly that ‘the most effective sanctions regimes are designed and… Read More UK Sanction Policies after Brexit: A Strategic Perspective

benkienzleLeave a comment

Current Russian and Chinese ways of warfare: the end (?) of military violence in peer-state conflict

DR ROD THORNTON When it comes to the winning of wars, it might be thought that military organisations today, just as they have always done, would be concentrating their efforts on how best to use kinetic force. Military violence is, after all, what militaries do. But not, it seems, any more – or at least… Read More Current Russian and Chinese ways of warfare: the end (?) of military violence in peer-state conflict

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### January 2015 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: January 2015

Because they’re worth it: Women in the Infantry

by DR KATHERINE E. BROWN Before Christmas, Defence Secretary Michael Fallon told BBC radio four that he hoped to “open up combat roles to women” in 2016. Most of the commentary on women joining the Infantry and engaging in close quarter combat is framed in a negative manner. For example although Fall When Hit argues… Read More Because they’re worth it: Women in the Infantry

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Digital First World War Resources: Online Archival Sources

By DR ROBERT T. FOLEY For many years I envied the research sources available to my colleagues writing about contemporary defence and strategic issues. The ability to research a project from the comfort of their favorite desk, be this at home or in the office, seemed so much more appealing than exhausting and sometime fruitless… Read More Digital First World War Resources: Online Archival Sources

Robert T. Foley19 Comments

‘This is What Democracy Looks Like’: Obama’s America in 2015

by DR ELLEN HALLAMS The recent wave of violence and protests across America following the deaths of two black men, Michael Brown and Eric Garner, and the subsequent decisions of grand juries not to indict the white police officers has cast an ugly light onto the social ills that are afflicting an ageing hegemon. As… Read More ‘This is What Democracy Looks Like’: Obama’s America in 2015

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### April 2018 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: April 2018

The Russian military’s ‘permanent’ commitment in Syria and the Eastern Mediterranean

DR ROD THORNTON, Defence Studies Department, King’s College London The Russian military appears to be in Syria very much for the long haul. Indeed, the adjective ‘permanent’ [postoyannyi] has been applied by senior Russian political and military figures to describe both the presence of the Russian forces on land in Syria and the Russian Navy’s… Read More The Russian military’s ‘permanent’ commitment in Syria and the Eastern Mediterranean

benkienzle1 Comment

History on Film: Entertainment or Accuracy?

DR TIM BENBOW  Warning: contains spoilers for the film ‘Dunkirk’, and unashamedly subjective opinions on several other films… Historians are, I understand, notorious for offering their opinions (sought or otherwise) on the accuracy of films or television shows that touch on real events.  Astonishingly, these informed views are not always welcomed by the people watching… Read More History on Film: Entertainment or Accuracy?

defenceresearch6 Comments

UK Sanction Policies after Brexit: A Strategic Perspective

BEN KIENZLE is a Lecturer in Defence Studies at King’s College London In recent months, the European Union Committee of the House of Lords has published its report on sanctions after Brexit (followed two months later by an official government response). The report highlights quite rightly that ‘the most effective sanctions regimes are designed and… Read More UK Sanction Policies after Brexit: A Strategic Perspective

benkienzleLeave a comment

Military identities, conventional capability and the politics of NATO standardisation at the beginning of the Second Cold War, 1970-1980

DR ALEX GOULD & DR MATTHEW FORD The need to standardise equipment, weapons and doctrine in NATO was recognized as a strategic imperative from the onset of the Cold War. As Eliot Cohen noted in an article published in Foreign Policy in 1978, ‘non-standardised armies require unique and separate supply lines, making wide-ranging manoeuvres difficult…neighbouring troops… Read More Military identities, conventional capability and the politics of NATO standardisation at the beginning of the Second Cold War, 1970-1980

defenceresearch1 Comment
#####EOF##### British Defence Policy – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: British Defence Policy

A British “Way” in Covert Action

RORY CORMAC Rory Cormac is an associate professor of international Relations at the University of Nottingham. He is the author of Disrupt and Deny: Spies, Special Forces, and the Secret Pursuit of British Foreign Policy (OUP, 2018). You an follow him at @RoryCormac. Unacknowledged interference in the affairs of other states is all around us.… Read More A British “Way” in Covert Action

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Better the devil you know? Galileo, Brexit, and British defence space strategy

DR BLEDDYN E. BOWEN Bleddyn Bowen is a Lecturer in International Relations and expert in space warfare, space policy, and the politics of outer space at the School of History, Politics, and International Relations at the University of Leicester. He was published in several academic journals, contributed op-eds to numerous professional outelts including the LSE’s… Read More Better the devil you know? Galileo, Brexit, and British defence space strategy

defenceresearch1 Comment

2018 – will the year of the Royal Air Force be any better than 2017 was for the Royal Navy?

PROF ANDREW DORMAN, PROF MATTHEW UTTLEY, MS ARMIDA VAN RIJ, & DR BENEDICT WILKINSON If 2017 was the ‘Year of the Royal Navy (RN)’ then presumably 2018 is the de facto year of the Royal Air Force (RAF) as it celebrates 100 years since its formation on 1st April 1918. For the RN, 2017 proved more… Read More 2018 – will the year of the Royal Air Force be any better than 2017 was for the Royal Navy?

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Amphibiosity, the Royal Marines and the Defence Debate in the UK

PROF ANDREW DORMAN, PROF MATTHEW UTTLEY, MS ARMIDA VAN RIJ The House of Commons Defence Committee (HCDC) has recently released a report emotively entitled ‘Sunset for the Royal Marines?’ The report followed on from the HCDC’s rapid inquiry into the future of the UK’s amphibious capability in the wake of a series of press reports… Read More Amphibiosity, the Royal Marines and the Defence Debate in the UK

defenceresearch3 Comments

The Defence Review and the Military High Command: Do changes in personnel numbers suggest that the armed forces are capable of modernising themselves?

PROF ANDREW DORMAN*, PROF MATTHEW UTTLEY, & DR BENEDICT WILKINSON In December 2017, General Sir Nicholas Carter, Chief of the General Staff (CGS) exchanged ‘Letters to the Editor’ in The Times with Frank Ledwidge, one of our King’s Department of War Studies colleagues.[1] At issue was the size of the senior officer corps compared to… Read More The Defence Review and the Military High Command: Do changes in personnel numbers suggest that the armed forces are capable of modernising themselves?

defenceresearch3 Comments

No news is good news? The field of security & defence one year after the Brexit referendum

DR BEN KIENZLE On 23 June 2016, the British people voted to leave the European Union (EU). This has been widely seen as one of the most important strategic decisions of the UK in a generation. In the immediate aftermath of the EU referendum, Ellen Hallams and Ben Kienzle have brought together researchers from King’s… Read More No news is good news? The field of security & defence one year after the Brexit referendum

benkienzleLeave a comment

The UK’s International Defence Engagement Strategy: Lessons from Bassingbourn

LT COL JAMES CHANDLER In 2015 Lieutenant Colonel James Chandler was the Chief of the General Staff’s inaugural Army Visiting Fellow to the Royal Institute of International Affairs, Chatham House.  The following post is a short summary of his research paper published by Chatham House in April 2016 (available here).  The author argues that if… Read More The UK’s International Defence Engagement Strategy: Lessons from Bassingbourn

defenceresearch1 Comment

The British Army & the Chilcot Report: Strategy isn’t the answer

DR DAVID MORGAN-OWEN This post originally appeared on The Wavell Room – a new blog to encourage the discussion of thinking within the British armed forces. Follow the Wavell room on Twitter @wavellroom The long-await report of Sir John Chilcot’s commission on the Iraq War is feeding a dangerous illusion in the British Armed Forces: that… Read More The British Army & the Chilcot Report: Strategy isn’t the answer

davidmorganowenLeave a comment

2017 – the Year of the Royal Navy: time to get real?

Professor Andrew M Dorman and Professor Matthew R H Uttley Centre for British Defence and Security Studies As we entered 2017 the Ministry of Defence earmarked 2017 as the ‘year of the Royal Navy (RN)’. In the press release that accompanied the announcement key milestones for 2017 were highlighted, including the new aircraft carrier HMS… Read More 2017 – the Year of the Royal Navy: time to get real?

defenceresearch5 Comments

Beyond Effectiveness on the Battlefield: reframing Military Innovation in terms of time, networks and power

This is one in a series of occasional posts from scholars outside of the Defence Studies Department. If you would be interested to contribute to this series please contact the editors: Dr Amir Kamel and Dr David Morgan-Owen.  DR MATTHEW FORD Dr Matthew Ford is a Senior Lecturer in International Relations at the University of Sussex. His book Weapon of… Read More Beyond Effectiveness on the Battlefield: reframing Military Innovation in terms of time, networks and power

defenceresearch1 Comment
#####EOF##### THE BATTLE FOR THE HORN OF AFRICA: A RETROSPECTIVE – Defence-In-Depth

THE BATTLE FOR THE HORN OF AFRICA: A RETROSPECTIVE

GERAINT HUGHES

The 4th March 1978 was a pivotal day in one of the most obscure decisive battles in military history. The battle of Jijiga was the climax of an eight month war between Ethiopia and Somalia, provoked by the latter’s territorial claim on the province of Ogaden, and it was a crushing victory for the Ethiopians, aided by a Cuban expeditionary force and a military mission of Soviet advisors. The battle of Jijiga had second and third-order consequences in the form of the decline of East-West détente, Somalia’s collapse into anarchy, the horrors of the Ethiopian famine in the mid-1980s (which inspired the Live Aid and Band Aid charity concerts), and endemic instability within the Horn of Africa.

Zbigniew Brzezinski, the National Security Advisor for the then-US President Jimmy Carter, blamed Soviet and Cuban intervention in the Ethiopian-Somali War for the deterioration of superpower relations during the late 1970s, declaring portentously that US-Soviet strategic arms control talks were ‘buried in the sands of the Ogaden’. And yet this conflict – and the culminating battle which ended it – remain as blank spots in recent history, arguably because very little about the Ogaden War has been published in English.

This blog post is intended to highlight the history of a short, but nonetheless bloody inter-state conflict which cost the lives of over 12,000 soldiers on both sides. The two opposing sides were well-equipped for manoeuvre warfare, and had been trained and equipped by the superpowers. That capacity for major combat operations (MCO) has been recorded by the historian Gebru Tareke, the most authoritative scholar of this conflict, quoting an Ethiopian veteran of this war who stated that ‘if one were to combine the Ethiopian air force and the Somali tank units, one would have created Africa’s dream army’. The Ethiopian-Somali War of 1977-1978 provides an example of non-Western MCO outside that continues to be worthy of wider consideration and analysis. It also had catastrophic consequences which continue to destabilise the region as a whole.

The war’s origins:

The province of Ogaden is around 200,000 square kilometres in size, consisting of a largely barren plain, bounded to the North by the highlands of the Ahmar mountains and the Harar Plateau. Its population is predominantly ethnic Somali and traditionally hostile towards the Ethiopians, although the minorities of the highlands are better disposed towards Ethiopian rule. As this map shows, the key urban areas of the province are in close proximity to Somalia:

Jijiga 001

The cities of Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga sit on the road and rail communications connecting the urban-industrial centres of Ethiopia with the port of Djibouti. They – along with the Kara Mardeh Pass – constitute key terrain, and it is worth noting that they were fought over during the East Africa Campaign of 1941, in which British Empire forces liberated Ethiopia from Fascist Italy.

Readers will no doubt be familiar with the ‘Scramble for Africa’ during the late 19th Century, in which the European powers divided the continent between then in their quest for colonies. However, the Ethiopian Empire was the one indigenous state that not only survived the European onslaught, but also had a say in how its borders were drawn. The Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II crushed an Italian invasion at the battle of Adwa in 1896, and also conquered Ogaden and added it to his realm. Aside from the Italian occupation from 1935-1941, the Ogaden remained an Ethiopian possession. In the aftermath of World War II the British did propose to cede the territory to Somalia (as a preparatory move towards statehood), but the Emperor Haile Selassie successfully opposed secession with US diplomatic support.

In July 1960 Somalia was granted independence with the unification of the former British and Italian colonial territories. However, irredentism was one of the few sources of political unity in the new state, not least because Somali clans had kinship ties with their brethren across the border with Ethiopia, and also with the populations of the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas (which achieved statehood as Djibouti in June 1977) and the Northern Frontier District of Kenya, which gained independence from Britain in 1963. Somalia pursued its territorial claims on Ethiopia with the Organisation of African Unity (OAU, the precursor to the African Union), but the latter backed Addis Ababa; not only because Ethiopia was one of its founder states, but because the newly-independent sub-Saharan states recognised that while colonially-defined frontiers were an affront, their unravelling was also potentially destabilising.

Ethiopia also benefitted from its defence ties with the USA. An American Military Advisory and Assistance Group (MAAG) trained its armed forces, which also received a total of US$161m in arms and equipment from the USA from 1950 to 1973. A substantial number of Ethiopian officers (including the future dictator Colonel Mengistu Haile Mariam) were educated and trained in American military academies and colleges. Haile Selassie’s decision to commit an Ethiopian battalion to the US-led UN forces during the Korean War (June 1950-July 1953) – and the National Security Agency’s construction a signals intelligence (SIGINT) station at Kagnew (outside the capital of Asmara in contemporary Eritrea) – reinforced the alliance between Addis Ababa and Washington DC, and successive US administrations calculated that Ethiopia’s prestige in continental politics made it a valuable ally.

Even before the commander of the Somali National Army (SNA) Mohammed Siad Barre seized power on 21stOctober 1969, Somalia was a Soviet ally. The USSR provided arms and also a military mission to train the SNA, and five years after Barre’s Moscow and Mogadishu concluded a bilateral friendship treaty – the first signed by the Soviets with a sub-Saharan African state. One of the oddities of the Somali-Soviet alignment is that although the USSR did not support Mogadishu’s claim to the Ogaden, its arms supplies to Somalia provided Barre with the means to wage an offensive war against his neighbour. This was an anomaly that was to cause Leonid Brezhnev and his Politburoconsiderable embarrassment.

The triggers for the Somali invasion:

Between January and September 1974 Ethiopia was plunged into a revolution that led to the downfall of Haile Selassie’s absolutist monarchy, followed by a period of turmoil which ended with the country’s takeover by a clique of military officers, known as the Provisional Military Administrative Council (or the Derg, to use its Amharic name). The new regime was led by Colonel Mengistu, who declared a ‘Red Terror’ against political enemies included fellow officers, rival revolutionary parties and ethnic minority groups who revolted against his regime (most notably the Eritreans). Mengistu instigated a series of purges and executions which wrecked the Ethiopian military, and which also contributed to a nascent civil war within his own country. On 23rd April 1977 he also expelled the US MAAG from Ethiopia, signifying his intention to align with the Soviet bloc.

In the midst of this chaos Barre spotted an opportunity to snatch the Ogaden, initially by supporting the West Somali Liberation Front (WSLF), an insurgent movement that was trained and ultimately augmented by the SNA. The WSLF grew in size to around 30,000 guerrillas by late 1976, reinforced by 6,000 Somali troops, and it provided Barre with a means of waging a proxy war against the Derg. By the summer of 1977 the WSLF had seized control over much of the countryside, leaving the urban areas of the province under Ethiopian control. Its insurgents had also cut Ethiopia’s lines of communication to Djibouti, imposing an additional economic burden on Mengistu’s unstable regime.

On the eve of the Somali invasion of the Ogaden Barre’s forces were outnumbered on paper by their adversaries, having 25,000 troops (in one commando, 9 mechanised and 5 infantry battalions) facing 51,000 soldiers (in 3 infantry divisions, a mechanised battalion and an airborne battalion). However, Ethiopian combat power was dissipated by a series of insurgencies (most notably the Eritrean revolt), while military morale was further undermined by the purges and executions of the officer corps instigated with Mengistu’s ‘Red Terror’. The Ethiopians had a slight advantage with artillery and air power (6 field batteries to 4 Somali ones, and one bomber and three fighter/ground attack (FGA) squadrons to one bomber and 2 FGA squadrons), but were outnumbered in armour, as the SNA had 6 battalions of Soviet-supplied T-54/T-55 tanks to Ethiopia’s two battalions of US-made M-41s and M-60s. The mismatch between the two sides – and the preparatory guerrilla campaign by the WSLF – accounts for the immediate successes of the Somali onslaught in the summer of 1977.

The Somali offensive and its consequences, July 1977-February 1978:

Shortly after the SNA crossed the frontier in force on 13thJuly 1977, both they and the WSLF conquered 90% of Ogaden. The Ethiopians were routed, and on 12thSeptember 1977 the strategically-vital town of Jijiga fell to the invaders. Mengistu’s forces managed to keep a toe-hold on Northern Ogaden, thwarting an SNA/WSLF attack on Dire Dawa on 17thAugust, whilst defending Harar from a series of Somali/insurgent onslaughts from September 1977 to January 1978. Like Josif Stalin in the first months of Operation Barbarossa, Mengistu responded to battlefield setbacks by arraigning and executing both officers and soldiers for cowardice and incompetence. However, the Ethiopian dictator also rallied his people with patriotic appeals to defend the homeland against the Somali aggressors, and like the French Jacobins in the 1790s he raised a militia of ill-trained but fervent fighters who provided the manpower which enabled the professional military to hold Dire Dawa and Harar, and then subsequently reconstitute its depleted ranks. An external attack allowed Mengistu to overcome the internal revolutionary turmoil he had fuelled, temporarily unifying his people against an external enemy.

Meanwhile, Barre undermined himself strategically by mishandling his relations with the superpowers. In June 1977 the Somali dictator was reportedly emboldened by a visit his American physician, Dr Kevin Cahill, paid to Washington DC. Cahill claimed to have received assurances from US officials that the USA was not opposed to a Somali invasion of Ethiopia. However, evidence of US collusion in Somalia’s invasion of the Ogaden remains elusive, and although Brzezinski attempted to push policy in a pro-Somali direction after July 1977 the administration declared its neutrality during this conflict, issuing appeals for a peaceful settlement and calling for the disengagement of all foreign forces from the Horn of Africa. Given the fact that the OAU had overwhelmingly sided with Ethiopia and condemned Somalia as the aggressor, Carter’s decision not to get the USA involved in a fight between a former US ally and a former Soviet one was arguably the only sensible option. The problem was that it had been preceded by months of indecision and drift which, Louise Woodroofe convincingly argues, sent mixed messages to both Mogadishu and Addis Ababa.

Barre’s failure to gain US support was compounded by the rupturing of Somalia’s alliance with the Soviet bloc. Moscow and Havana had hoped that a ‘progressive’ Ethiopia and Somalia could form a Federation with another Marxist-Leninist state, the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY), and both Leonid Brezhnev and Fidel Castro were infuriated by the Somali dictator’s demands for the secession of the Ogaden as a precondition. Moscow came to the conclusion that in political, economic and demographic terms Ethiopia counted for more than Somalia, and the latter’s isolation from the OAU provided an additional incentive to back Mengistu. Furthermore, the Soviets concluded that after the Egyptian President Anwar Sadat’s turn towards the West, the USSR needed for reasons of prestige to bolster its newest ally in North-East Africa. In late September 1977 the PDRY sent two battalions of troops to Ethiopia, and two months later the USSR commenced a massive sea and airlift of arms to Mengistu’s regime. Barre responded by denouncing his friendship treaty with the USSR on 13thNovember 1977, and by expelling Soviet and Cuban military advisors from Somalia. This proved to be a catastrophic mistake on his part.

Brezhnev sent a military mission of around 1,500 advisors to Ethiopia, led by the First Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Soviet Ground Forces, a decorated veteran of World War II named Vasily Petrov. His command was augmented by Soviet officers who had hitherto been attached to the advisory mission to Somalia, including its head Lieutenant-General Grigori Borisov (who subsequently became General Petrov’s operations officer, and the de factocommander-in-chief of the Ethiopian military). The scale of Soviet bloc military assistance was impressive, with an estimated total of around US$1bn worth of arms being provided either by shipping from Aden, or from the Soviet Air Force’s Air Transport Command flying from air bases in the USSR, or from the then-Warsaw Pact member states of Hungary and Bulgaria. This included at least 400 T-54/T55s, 200 armoured fighting vehicles and armoured personnel carriers, 60 FGA, 300 artillery tubes and 28 Katyushamultiple rocket-launchers.

The qualitative as well as the quantitative dimensions of Soviet aid proved to be significant. Aside from enhanced command and control, Petrov’s mission reported provided important intelligence assistance to the Ethiopians as well. On the day of the airlift the USSR launched a Cosmos-964 satellite, setting it on geosynchronous orbit over the war-zone. The imagery intelligence provided was fed both to a Soviet communications complex in Addis Ababa, and a ground station at Dire Dawa. MiG-21s flown by Soviet pilots also reportedly flew reconnaissance missions, while the Soviet Navy’s Indian Ocean squadron apparently provided SIGINT on the Somalis from its offshore stations. The latter were using Soviet-supplied communications equipment, and even if the USSR’s SIGINT specialists were unable to eavesdrop on and interpret SNA radio chatter, it is reasonable to infer that they could have provided traffic analysis for Petrov’s headquarters.

What also proved to be crucial was the airlift of 15,000 Cuban troops (a total of three brigades) to reinforce the Ethiopians. Contrary to the Cold War image of the Cubans as ‘Moscow’s Ghurkhas’, Castro had a record of instigating expeditionary operations in support of revolutionary movements and regimes. This interventionist trait was demonstrated during the Angolan civil war of 1975-1976, when during the chaos of Portuguese decolonisation he had sent first advisors and then a task force to successfully defend the MPLA regime against two rival national-liberation movements, the FNLA and UNITA, which were backed by Zaire, apartheidSouth Africa and the USA. The Cuban leader regarded himself as a partner, rather than a proxy, for his Soviet allies, and despite outward appearances the relationship between Moscow and Havana was by no means one of superpower dominance and client subservience.

The Cuban contingent sent to Ethiopia in late 1977 was commanded by General Arnaldo Ochoa Sanchez, who had fought alongside the MPLA in Angola two years previously. Just over 20 years after the Ogaden war Ochoa Sanchez was to be tried and executed in Cuba on charges (possibly fabricated) of corruption and drug-trafficking. Yet at the time of the Ethiopian-Somali conflict he was evidently trusted for both political and professional reasons to command the expeditionary force Havana sent to the Horn of Africa.

By January 1978 the front-line in the Ogaden had stabilised, and Petrov noted that the Ethiopian regular forces had been badly worsted in its fight against the SNA and WSLF, with two of its three infantry divisions broken by their losses. The Soviet planning cell concentrated its efforts on enabling the Ethiopians to recover the initiative, and to inflict a crushing defeat on the Somalis before potential international mediators could promote a ceasefire. Jijiga became the focus for Petrov’s counter-offensive.

The battle for Jijiga.

This mapillustrates the position of the opposing forces by February-March 1978:

Jijiga 002

As this phase the SNA held the Western end of the Kara Mandeh Pass, on the main supply route which in peacetime had linked Dire Dawa and Harar (still in Ethiopian hands) with Jijiga. To the North lay the Ahmar Mountains, a significant obstacle for any mechanised force to cross. The Soviet resupply effort had, however, provided the Ethiopians with over 30 helicopters, including Mi-6 Hook aircraft which had a payload of up to 70 troops, and sufficient strength to lift artillery pieces and light tanks into battle. From what subsequently transpired it is possible to infer that Barre and his advisors had no idea that their enemy had been reinforced with substantial assets for air mobility and vertical envelopment.

Mengistu set up a Supreme Military Strategic Committee to co-ordinate the counter-offensive, with Petrov as its chair. Borisov commanded the Ethiopian ground forces, and Ochoa Sanchez the Cubans. The plan for Jijiga was a simple one. The Ethiopian 3rdInfantry Division (supported by a Cuban mechanised brigade) would stage a diversionary effort against the SNA front line at Marda, at the foot of the Kara Mandeh. Meanwhile, the Ethiopian 10thInfantry Division (reinforced by another Cuban brigade) would undertake a flank march North of the Ahmar mountains, supported by Soviet rotary lift. The latter would enable the Ethiopians and Cubans to establish a forward operating base North of Jijiga, and then to subsequently recapture the town from its Somali and WSLF garrison, cutting off the Eastern escape route of the SNA formations inside the Kara Mandeh.

To prepare the battlefield the Ethiopian air force – reportedly reinforced by Cuban aircrew – flew close air support strikes against the SNA, and also launched interdiction sorties into Somalia itself which included air-strikes on Hargeisa and the port of Berbera. Ethiopian aircrew benefited from both their experience (their air force had 30 years of corporate service compared to 15 for their Somali foes) and the superiority of their Western training, reportedly shooting down over 30 Somali MiGs in air-to-air combat. Soviet bloc aid served to reinforce Ethiopian air superiority, which helped shape the battle to come.

The Jijiga counter-offensive began with a feint by the 3rdInfantry Division and its supporting Cuban Brigade against SNA positions at Marda, while from 2nd-3rdMarch 1978 Ethiopian and Cuban forces conducted their advance North of the Ahmar Mountains, establishing a forward operating base North of their objective. The 4thMarch proved to be the crucial day. As the flanking force assaulted and captured Jijiga, the diversionary element became the main effort, smashing through an enemy trapped within the Kara Mandeh Pass. The Somalis lost four out of six of their Brigades, and the remnants retreated home in disarray.

Jijiga 003

The Ethiopians quickly recovered control of the Ogaden, and on 23rdMarch Mengistu declared victory, avoiding the temptation to launch a counter-invasion of Somalia that could have provoked a wider war (Iran, Egypt, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia having reportedly pledged military aid to Barre if Ethiopian forces crossed the frontier).

What was left of the WSLF carried on a doomed insurgency in Southern Ogaden for four more years, but the Ethiopian armed forces conducted a successful counter-insurgency campaign (known as Lash, the Amharic word for ringworm) to secure the province. Ogaden is still the scene of anti-government activity, conducted by the Ogaden National Liberation Front, and Ethiopian security forces stand accused of human rights abuses carried out in an attempt to suppress this latest rebellion against Addis Ababa.

The consequences:

From Brzezinski’s perspective, the Ogaden War soured US-Soviet relations, undermining the attempts made by the US Secretary of State (and rival to the National Security Advisor) Cyrus Vance to ease East-West tensions. The Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko angered Carter during a meeting in the White House on 27th May 1978 by insisting that ‘there was no Soviet Napoleon in Africa’; his hosts were fully aware of the role that Petrov and his staff had played in the Ethiopian victory. The Ethiopian-Somali clash became one of what the National Security Advisor saw as a series of Soviet provocations in an ‘Arc of Crisis’ stretching from the Red Sea to South Asia, culminating in the USSR’s intervention in Afghanistan (25th December 1979).  As far as both the Carter administration and its neo-conservative critics were concerned, Soviet meddling in the Horn of Africa was a significant cause in the downfall of détente.

For his part, Barre had gambled that capturing Ogaden and uniting its population with the Somali homeland would bolster his regime. Instead, a month after the Ethiopian victory he was faced with an abortive military putsch, and the survivors of his crackdown formed two rebel armies, the Somali National Movement and the Somali Salvation Front. The civil war against both groups eventually ended in January 1991 with the fall of Mogadishu, Barre’s defeat, and Somalia’s disintegration as a state.

In Ethiopia’s case, Mengistu emerged from his victory in a far from magnanimous mood. Having crushed the Somalis and their Ogadeni proxies (albeit with generous aid from the USSR, Cuba, the PDRY and other Communist powers), the Ethiopian dictator decided that the best means of resolving remaining revolts against the Derginvolved brute force, rather than reconciliation. Despite attempts by the Cubans and East Germans to promote mediation, Mengistu therefore declared  total war against the Eritrean and Tigrean rebels, making no distinction between guerrillas and civilians in either case, and his regime’s efforts to starve out the insurgencies were the primary cause of the horrific famine that shocked world opinion in the mid-1980s. The efforts by ‘Africa’s Stalin’ to crush his foes by a combination of military force and starvation backfired, and in May 1991 he fled Addis Ababa as rebel forces stormed his capital, seeking sanctuary in Zimbabwe from his fellow despot Robert Mugabe. The alignment between the Eritrean and Tigrean rebels who defeated him led to Eritrea’s independence in 1993, although five years later a bitter border war between the two successor states has led to a proxy conflict that continues to destabilise the region.

Of the two tyrants and the two field commanders most intimately involved in Jijiga, Mengistu is still alive and in exile in Harare, perhaps wondering if the post-Mugabe government might deport him to his homeland to face the trial for crimes against humanity that is his due. Barre died in exile in Lagos on 2ndJanuary 1995. Ochoa Sanchez’s execution is referred to above, while Petrov passed away as a nonagenarian Marshal of the Russian Federation on 1stFebruary 2014. For Cold War and military historians, a retrospective analysis of Jijiga allows us to ponder both a classic – if forgotten – example of combined-arms manoeuvre in practice. But it was also a precursor to a series of humanitarian disasters that occurred in both Ethiopia and Somalia, the consequences of which we are still experiencing today.

Image: Cuban artillerymen preparing to fire on Somali forces in the Ogaden, via wikimedia commons.

Maps via the Perry-Castaneda Library Map Collection.

 

One thought on “THE BATTLE FOR THE HORN OF AFRICA: A RETROSPECTIVE”

Leave a Reply

Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in:

Gravatar
WordPress.com Logo

You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Google photo

You are commenting using your Google account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Twitter picture

You are commenting using your Twitter account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Facebook photo

You are commenting using your Facebook account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Cancel

Connecting to %s

%d bloggers like this:
#####EOF##### Kurdistan – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Kurdistan

TURKEY’S KURDISH PROBLEM(S), THE KURDS’ TURKISH PROBLEM(S), AND THE CRISES IN THE MIDDLE EAST (Part 2)

BY BILL PARK This is the second of a two-part series on the topic. The first of which was posted week on the Defence-in-Depth blog. Turkey’s transborder Kurdish problem There can be little doubt that both Ankara and Turkey’s Kurdish nationalists have been influenced by developments in Syria. Many of Turkey’s Kurds are inspired by… Read More TURKEY’S KURDISH PROBLEM(S), THE KURDS’ TURKISH PROBLEM(S), AND THE CRISES IN THE MIDDLE EAST (Part 2)

defenceresearchLeave a comment

TURKEY’S KURDISH PROBLEM(S), THE KURDS’ TURKISH PROBLEM(S), AND THE CRISES IN THE MIDDLE EAST (PART 1)

BY BILL PARK This is the first of a two-part series on the topic. The second of which will be posted next week on the Defence-in-Depth blog. Turkey’s very own Kurdish problem Turkey’s AKP government’s attempts to seek a resolution to the country’s domestic Kurdish problem had by the second half of 2015 deteriorated into… Read More TURKEY’S KURDISH PROBLEM(S), THE KURDS’ TURKISH PROBLEM(S), AND THE CRISES IN THE MIDDLE EAST (PART 1)

defenceresearch1 Comment

ISLAMIC STATE AND TURKEY’S ‘PRECIOUS LONELINESS’

This is the fifth in a series of posts to come out of the ‘Rise of the Islamic State (IS): Ideology, Strategy, and Implications’ roundtable organized by Regional Security Research Centre on 4 February 2015.  An audio recording of this roundtable can be listen to or downloaded from the Defence Studies Department’s SoundCloud page. by… Read More ISLAMIC STATE AND TURKEY’S ‘PRECIOUS LONELINESS’

billpark1710Leave a comment

The Kurds as Proxies against the Islamic State

This is the fourth in a series of posts to come out of the ‘Rise of the Islamic State (IS): Ideology, Strategy, and Implications’ roundtable organized by Regional Security Research Centre on 4 February 2015. An audio recording of this roundtable can be listen to or downloaded from the Defence Studies Department’s SoundCloud page. by… Read More The Kurds as Proxies against the Islamic State

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The war against the Islamic State and the plight of Iraqi Kurdistan

  by BILL PARK The 10th June fall of Mosul to the irregular forces of the Islamic State of Iraq and Levant (ISIL), now calling itself the ‘Islamic State’, accompanied as it was by the total collapse of the lavishly equipped and US-trained Iraqi army, presented both threat and opportunity to the Kurdistan Regional Government… Read More The war against the Islamic State and the plight of Iraqi Kurdistan

billpark17101 Comment
#####EOF##### Saudi Arabia – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Saudi Arabia

The Gulf Rift – A war over two irreconcilable narratives

DR ANDREAS KRIEG Dr Krieg is the author of Socio-Political Order and Security in the Arab World: From Regime Security to Public Security. This the second blog post by DSD’s Middle East experts on the Qatar Crisis. Amid the ongoing escalation in the Arabian Gulf, diplomats, regional news outlets and experts are heavily bogged down… Read More The Gulf Rift – A war over two irreconcilable narratives

benkienzleLeave a comment

Saudi Arabia and its anti-terror alliance

DR DAVID ROBERTS On 14 December 2015, Saudi Arabia’s Deputy Crown Prince and Defence Minister, Mohammed bin Salman al-Saud, called a press conference and announced the formation of a new thirty-four nation-strong Islamic military alliance that would be dedicated to countering the threat of terrorism around the wider Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region.… Read More Saudi Arabia and its anti-terror alliance

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Grappling with the Implications of Saudi Arabia’s Transition

by Dr DAVID ROBERTS On 23 January 2015, King Abdullah bin Abdul-Aziz al-Saud died and his half-brother, Salman bin Abdul-Aziz al-Saud, in a smooth transition, became king. This was the sixth succession in Saudi Arabia since it formally became ‘Saudi’ Arabia in 1932 under King Abdul-Aziz al-Saud (d.1953). So far, each Saudi ruler has been… Read More Grappling with the Implications of Saudi Arabia’s Transition

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### February 2018 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: February 2018

The Changing Role and Position of Turkish Armed Forces in Turkish Foreign Policy

SELCUK AYDIN The Turkish Armed Forces have been discussed substantially during the last few years in the context of Turkish Foreign Policy due to new developments in the military; such as building a military base in Qatar and Somalia, technological transformation, the S400 strategic defence system deal with Russia, and operations in Iraq and particularly… Read More The Changing Role and Position of Turkish Armed Forces in Turkish Foreign Policy

defenceresearch2 Comments

Amphibiosity, the Royal Marines and the Defence Debate in the UK

PROF ANDREW DORMAN, PROF MATTHEW UTTLEY, MS ARMIDA VAN RIJ The House of Commons Defence Committee (HCDC) has recently released a report emotively entitled ‘Sunset for the Royal Marines?’ The report followed on from the HCDC’s rapid inquiry into the future of the UK’s amphibious capability in the wake of a series of press reports… Read More Amphibiosity, the Royal Marines and the Defence Debate in the UK

defenceresearch3 Comments

The Defence Review and the Military High Command: Do changes in personnel numbers suggest that the armed forces are capable of modernising themselves?

PROF ANDREW DORMAN*, PROF MATTHEW UTTLEY, & DR BENEDICT WILKINSON In December 2017, General Sir Nicholas Carter, Chief of the General Staff (CGS) exchanged ‘Letters to the Editor’ in The Times with Frank Ledwidge, one of our King’s Department of War Studies colleagues.[1] At issue was the size of the senior officer corps compared to… Read More The Defence Review and the Military High Command: Do changes in personnel numbers suggest that the armed forces are capable of modernising themselves?

defenceresearch3 Comments

Is the use of nuclear weapons more likely now? Well, yes…

DR ROD THORNTON Nuclear weapons are, it seems, becoming more and more of a factor in the thinking about how future major wars will be conducted. The recently released United States Nuclear Posture Review (NPR) points to the fact that Washington now wants to increase the size of its nuclear arsenal. Specifically, it seeks to… Read More Is the use of nuclear weapons more likely now? Well, yes…

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The ethical legitimacy of military outsourcing

ROBERT PARR is currently a PhD Student with the Defence Studies Department of King’s College London. Increased levels of uptake from the commercial security sector by national governments in the post-9/11 era have spawned a large body of academic research, the majority of which is centred around the connected questions of why this phenomenon has… Read More The ethical legitimacy of military outsourcing

benkienzleLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Afghanistan – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Afghanistan

Coalitions and Ethical Relativism: Challenges for Those on the Ground

DR DAVID WHETHAM is Reader in Military Ethics and Director of the King’s Centre for Military Ethics. Editorial note: This article contains content some readers may find upsetting.   In the latest volume to come out in the book series from the European Chapter of the International Society for Military Ethics, I write about the… Read More Coalitions and Ethical Relativism: Challenges for Those on the Ground

benkienzleLeave a comment

History & Policy

DR CHRISTIAN TRIPODI As the annual Advanced Command and Staff Course at the Defence Academy of the United Kingdom progresses toward its conclusion, the students will shortly divide into three separate modules for the final term. One of those, the ‘Ends’ module, will draw the students into deeper consideration of the dynamics and processes underpinning… Read More History & Policy

defenceresearch1 Comment

Iran’s Afghanistan Policy: At odds with Trump?

By Dr. Amir M. Kamel The prospect of the US president-elect Donald Trump’s Administration has led to ripples across the international system, not least in the Middle East. Indeed, at the time of writing, Trump had pledged to reduce the US tendency to carry out foreign interventions. Significantly, this included harsh criticisms of the 2015… Read More Iran’s Afghanistan Policy: At odds with Trump?

amirmkamel1 Comment

THE OTHER VIETNAM ANALOGY: TONY BLAIR, HAROLD WILSON AND THE ‘SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP’.

DR GERAINT HUGHES Even before the release of the Chilcot Report on 6th July 2016 the reputation of Tony Blair was tarnished by the controversies surrounding Britain’s involvement in the Iraq War (2003-2009), his relationship with former President George W. Bush, and the flawed decision-making which took the UK into this conflict. One side-effect of Operation Telic is that… Read More THE OTHER VIETNAM ANALOGY: TONY BLAIR, HAROLD WILSON AND THE ‘SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP’.

defenceresearch1 Comment

Iraq: not the first British disaster … and it’s unlikely to be the last

DR CHRIS TUCK After seven years, the Chilcot inquiry into the circumstances surrounding Britain’s involvement in the Iraq war finally has been released. Its conclusions are an excoriating critique of the limitations in British strategy and policy in 2003. The inquiry has identified a raft of issues: that war was not the last resort and… Read More Iraq: not the first British disaster … and it’s unlikely to be the last

defenceresearch1 Comment

Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…South Asia: thaw in India-Pakistan relations?

After a turbulent 2015, members of DSD’s Regional Security Research Centre (@KingsRegSec) look forward to the coming year and examine the issues that they believe will be prominent in 2016, including the US presidential elections, continuing instability across the Middle East and the various coalitions seeking to counter IS, talks between India and Pakistan on… Read More Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…South Asia: thaw in India-Pakistan relations?

defenceresearchLeave a comment

COUNTER-INSURGENCY: A QUESTION OF VICTORY

DR CHRISTINA GOULTER As Dr Huw Davies suggested in this post, how successfully the British armed forces incorporate their recent experience of counter-insurgency operations in Afghanistan and Iraq into doctrine and planning is likely to shape future perceptions of those campaigns. The fight against the Taliban has not ended, even for the West, because some advisory work by… Read More COUNTER-INSURGENCY: A QUESTION OF VICTORY

defenceresearch2 Comments

What Private Security Contracting can Teach Us About Recruitment and Retention in the Armed Forces

DR ALISON HAWKS —The data presented here was drawn from a large-scale study of armed private security contractors, of which this blog post is one aspect. The study set out to explore the perceptions and realities of being a private security contractor after military service. Of the men and women who completed the survey (n=1516),… Read More What Private Security Contracting can Teach Us About Recruitment and Retention in the Armed Forces

defenceresearch2 Comments

Was it worth it? How History will view the British Campaign in Afghanistan

by DR HUW J. DAVIES On Friday afternoon, I was asked if I would participate in a discussion on the BBC News Channel on ‘how history will view the recent campaign in Afghanistan’. I’m usually asked to participate in interviews that are way outside my comfort zone. This, whilst not entirely fitting within it, was… Read More Was it worth it? How History will view the British Campaign in Afghanistan

huwjdavies1 Comment
#####EOF##### November 2016 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: November 2016

It’s about reaching the decision, not victory: strategic theory and the difficulty of taking action

DR BLEDDYN E. BOWEN As students of the Defence Studies Department grapple with strategic theory this winter, a useful way to begin is to consider the purpose of strategic theory and the work of ‘that dead Prussian’. One perspective on this issue is that we are engaging with why reaching decisions in war is difficult… Read More It’s about reaching the decision, not victory: strategic theory and the difficulty of taking action

defenceresearch1 Comment

Conference Report: International Society for First World War Studies conference, ‘War Time’

Hanna Smyth (with Adam Luptak & Louis Halewood) – War Time co-organisers, Globalising and Localising the Great War, University of Oxford. The 9th conference of the International Society for First World War Studies was held at the University of Oxford on 9-11 November. Each year a different theme is chosen (such as ‘Landscapes’ and ‘Other… Read More Conference Report: International Society for First World War Studies conference, ‘War Time’

defenceresearch1 Comment

The Battle of the Somme: The First Proving Ground for British Air Power?

By Dr David Jordan 100 years after the conclusion of the Battle of the Somme, there is still a tendency – a quite understandable one – within the wider public discourse on the First World War to concentrate upon the first day of the Battle, on 1 July 1916 because of its appalling casualties, and… Read More The Battle of the Somme: The First Proving Ground for British Air Power?

amirmkamel1 Comment

The Significance of Suez 1956: A Reference Point and Turning Point?

This is the third in a series of posts drawn from an event to mark the 60th anniversary of the Suez Crisis which the Defence Studies Department Strategy and Defence Policy Research Centre hosted on November 7th, 2016. Recordings of the papers will be posted shortly to the Department soundcloud. DR KATE UTTING From a British… Read More The Significance of Suez 1956: A Reference Point and Turning Point?

defenceresearch1 Comment

SUEZ SIXTY YEARS ON: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ROYAL NAVY

This is the second in a series of posts drawn from an event to mark the 60th anniversary of the Suez Crisis which the Defence Studies Department Strategy and Defence Policy Research Centre hosted on November 7th, 2016. Recordings of the papers will be posted shortly to the Department soundcloud. By Dr Tim Benbow The Suez… Read More SUEZ SIXTY YEARS ON: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ROYAL NAVY

defenceresearch2 Comments

The Better Angels of America’s Nature: Hate, Hope and the 2016 US presidential election

DR ELLEN HALLAMS Like many people, I began this year dismissing the possibility that we could end the year with the UK having left the European Union and Donald Trump in the White House. I, like many others, have been blind to the very real fears and anxieties that saw a political earthquake shake the… Read More The Better Angels of America’s Nature: Hate, Hope and the 2016 US presidential election

defenceresearchLeave a comment

NATO’s deterrence moves in the Baltic States: falling into Russia’s trap?

Dr Rod Thornton NATO has decided to increase the number of troops it has operating (technically, either training or exercising) in the Baltic States. Included  in this contingent will be no less than four British tanks. The stated reason for this deployment is to ‘deter’ Russian aggression against Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. All well and… Read More NATO’s deterrence moves in the Baltic States: falling into Russia’s trap?

defenceresearch1 Comment
#####EOF##### July 2016 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: July 2016

Chilcot: The Lessons of Iraq vs The Reality of Interventions

DR CHRIS TRIPODI Chilcot’s exhaustive enquiry into the origins, undertaking, and consequences of the Iraq war has been published. In turn, this (rather less than) exhaustive analysis of certain of its conclusions seeks to explore two of the critical components of the faulty pre war decision-making process as identified by the report. It will propose… Read More Chilcot: The Lessons of Iraq vs The Reality of Interventions

defenceresearch1 Comment

NATO’s Warsaw Summit and Russia: deterrence or provocation?

DR TRACEY GERMAN The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) Summit in Warsaw, which took place 8-9 July 2016, focused on the continuing threat to Euro-Atlantic security from Russia, leading to an emphasis on deterrence and a strengthening of the alliance’s defence posture, moving away from its previous posture of reassurance. The summit’s final communiqué was… Read More NATO’s Warsaw Summit and Russia: deterrence or provocation?

defenceresearch1 Comment

Turkey: It’s the lust for power, stupid

BILL PARK Turkey’s president Recep Tayyip Erdogan is illiberal and autocratic. He has little respect for the rule of law or the autonomy of institutions. He was content to allow lawyers and police officials who were alleged supporters of the cleric Fethullah Gulen to pursue, beginning in 2008, and eventually imprison military and other so-called… Read More Turkey: It’s the lust for power, stupid

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Turkey’s “Anti-Modern” Coup Fiasco

DR FRANCESCO MILAN Two decades ago, a Turkish admiral coined the iconic term “post-modern coup” to describe what, to date, remains Turkey’s most recent successful military coup. Back then, in 1997, the military echelons escalated an ongoing political crisis, which culminated at a National Security Council meeting where the generals presented a list of ‘recommendations’… Read More Turkey’s “Anti-Modern” Coup Fiasco

defenceresearch1 Comment

Conference Report: the First World War at Sea, 1914-1919

ALEXANDER HOWLETT This was a major international conference, featuring a master-class of subject specialists and naval historians. Since the centenary of the Battle of Jutland was only a few days prior, the great naval battle was certainly the elephant in the room. Jutland was not, however, the only subject of discussion: the strategy and tactics… Read More Conference Report: the First World War at Sea, 1914-1919

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Balancing past and present: Edward Mead Earle and Makers of Modern Strategy

BY DR MICHAEL FINCH This post is based on my article which appears in the most recent issue of The Journal of Military History. It might be considered that in producing a significant contribution to scholarship, a scholar ensures his or her own reputation. Yet this is not always the case. Edward Mead Earle, Professor at… Read More Balancing past and present: Edward Mead Earle and Makers of Modern Strategy

defenceresearch1 Comment

THE OTHER VIETNAM ANALOGY: TONY BLAIR, HAROLD WILSON AND THE ‘SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP’.

DR GERAINT HUGHES Even before the release of the Chilcot Report on 6th July 2016 the reputation of Tony Blair was tarnished by the controversies surrounding Britain’s involvement in the Iraq War (2003-2009), his relationship with former President George W. Bush, and the flawed decision-making which took the UK into this conflict. One side-effect of Operation Telic is that… Read More THE OTHER VIETNAM ANALOGY: TONY BLAIR, HAROLD WILSON AND THE ‘SPECIAL RELATIONSHIP’.

defenceresearch1 Comment

The Dunkirk evacuation and the German ‘halt’ order

DR TIM BENBOW Sometimes academics are confronted by arguments with which we disagree, vehemently.  Most have something to be said for them or, at the very least, it is possible to appreciate where those proposing it are coming from and why they might believe it.  There are exceptions, which deserve nothing other than a good… Read More The Dunkirk evacuation and the German ‘halt’ order

defenceresearch9 Comments
#####EOF##### Royal Navy – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Royal Navy

Amphibiosity, the Royal Marines and the Defence Debate in the UK

PROF ANDREW DORMAN, PROF MATTHEW UTTLEY, MS ARMIDA VAN RIJ The House of Commons Defence Committee (HCDC) has recently released a report emotively entitled ‘Sunset for the Royal Marines?’ The report followed on from the HCDC’s rapid inquiry into the future of the UK’s amphibious capability in the wake of a series of press reports… Read More Amphibiosity, the Royal Marines and the Defence Debate in the UK

defenceresearch3 Comments

The Defence Review and the Military High Command: Do changes in personnel numbers suggest that the armed forces are capable of modernising themselves?

PROF ANDREW DORMAN*, PROF MATTHEW UTTLEY, & DR BENEDICT WILKINSON In December 2017, General Sir Nicholas Carter, Chief of the General Staff (CGS) exchanged ‘Letters to the Editor’ in The Times with Frank Ledwidge, one of our King’s Department of War Studies colleagues.[1] At issue was the size of the senior officer corps compared to… Read More The Defence Review and the Military High Command: Do changes in personnel numbers suggest that the armed forces are capable of modernising themselves?

defenceresearch3 Comments

British naval aviation in World War II: Escort Carriers

DR TIM BENBOW The Royal Navy pioneered the use of air power at sea, from bases ashore and from aircraft carriers, during the First World War.  It lost this lead during the interwar period due to a range of factors including limited spending on defence and an unclear national strategy, exacerbated by the Navy losing… Read More British naval aviation in World War II: Escort Carriers

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Italian Influences on British Imperial Defence & Grand Strategy, 1935-43

DR RICHARD HAMMOND Formulating grand strategy is an extraordinarily complex issue for a state. To understand the process, you have to assess not just that state’s own interests and the variety of external factors exerting influence on them, but also their perception of these influences. This was certainly the case for Britain during the interwar… Read More Italian Influences on British Imperial Defence & Grand Strategy, 1935-43

defenceresearch2 Comments

THE RETURN OF GORSHKOV AND THE NEW COLD WAR AT SEA

KEVIN ROWLANDS Commander Kevin Rowlands is a naval officer who was awarded a PhD in 2015 through the Defence Studies Department.  He is the editor of 21st Century Gorshkov, recently published by the US Naval Institute Press.  In the following post he argues the origins of Russia’s current maritime strategy can be traced to the… Read More THE RETURN OF GORSHKOV AND THE NEW COLD WAR AT SEA

defenceresearchLeave a comment

2017 – the Year of the Royal Navy: time to get real?

Professor Andrew M Dorman and Professor Matthew R H Uttley Centre for British Defence and Security Studies As we entered 2017 the Ministry of Defence earmarked 2017 as the ‘year of the Royal Navy (RN)’. In the press release that accompanied the announcement key milestones for 2017 were highlighted, including the new aircraft carrier HMS… Read More 2017 – the Year of the Royal Navy: time to get real?

defenceresearch5 Comments

Sea Power, Alliances, and Diplomacy: British Naval Supremacy in the Great War Era

LOUIS HALEWOOD Louis is a current DPhil student at the University of Oxford. He holds an MA in History from the University of Calgary. Louis is co-organiser of the upcoming ‘Economic Warfare and the Sea’ Conference, to be held at All SoulS College in July 2017. A recording of the talk this post is drawn from is… Read More Sea Power, Alliances, and Diplomacy: British Naval Supremacy in the Great War Era

defenceresearch3 Comments

SUEZ SIXTY YEARS ON: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ROYAL NAVY

This is the second in a series of posts drawn from an event to mark the 60th anniversary of the Suez Crisis which the Defence Studies Department Strategy and Defence Policy Research Centre hosted on November 7th, 2016. Recordings of the papers will be posted shortly to the Department soundcloud. By Dr Tim Benbow The Suez… Read More SUEZ SIXTY YEARS ON: IMPLICATIONS FOR THE ROYAL NAVY

defenceresearch2 Comments
#####EOF##### Military Ethics – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Military Ethics

Trust Me, I’m a Military Professional

Review of Redefining the Modern Military: The Intersection of Profession and Ethics, Nathan K. Finney and Tyrell O. Mayfield (eds.) Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2018. DR DEANE-PETER BAKER Deane Baker is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Humanities and Social Sciences at UNSW Canberra, and a Visiting Senior Research Fellow in the Centre… Read More Trust Me, I’m a Military Professional

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Autonomous Weapons and the Epistemology of Targeting

DR DEANE-PETER BAKER Deane Baker is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Humanities and Social Sciences at UNSW Canberra, and a Visiting Senior Research Fellow in the Centre for Military Ethics at Kings College London. He is a panelist on the International Panel on the Regulation of Autonomous Weapons (IPRAW), however his comments here… Read More Autonomous Weapons and the Epistemology of Targeting

benkienzle1 Comment

The ethical legitimacy of military outsourcing

ROBERT PARR is currently a PhD Student with the Defence Studies Department of King’s College London. Increased levels of uptake from the commercial security sector by national governments in the post-9/11 era have spawned a large body of academic research, the majority of which is centred around the connected questions of why this phenomenon has… Read More The ethical legitimacy of military outsourcing

benkienzleLeave a comment

Coalitions and Ethical Relativism: Challenges for Those on the Ground

DR DAVID WHETHAM is Reader in Military Ethics and Director of the King’s Centre for Military Ethics. Editorial note: This article contains content some readers may find upsetting.   In the latest volume to come out in the book series from the European Chapter of the International Society for Military Ethics, I write about the… Read More Coalitions and Ethical Relativism: Challenges for Those on the Ground

benkienzleLeave a comment
#####EOF##### December 2018 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: December 2018

Civil Resettlement Units – a lesson from the past

DR CLARE MAKEPEACE Clare is an historian, writer, lecturer and consultant in the cultural history of the First and Second World Wars. Her debut book Captives of War. British Prisoners of War in Europe in the Second World War was published in 2017, and she holds the position of Honorary Research Fellow at Birkbeck, University of London. You can… Read More Civil Resettlement Units – a lesson from the past

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Misdirection of Military Keynesianism

DR CHRISTOPHER SIMS Christopher Sims is a Non-Resident Fellow with the Modern War Institute at West Point.  The muscular force posture articulated in the United States 2017National Security Strategy emphasizes a return to symmetrical military confrontation.  Some important historical clues as to the future trajectory and priorities involved in facing a return to great power rivalry can be found… Read More The Misdirection of Military Keynesianism

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### June 2016 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: June 2016

1940-1942: THE FULCRUM OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY? Burma 1942: SOE’s role in ‘Defeat into Victory’

This is the sixth in a series of posts connected to the King’s College Second World War Research Group’s ‘1940-1942: Fulcrum of the Twentieth Century Conference’, held at the JSCSC on June 1st.  DR RICHARD DUCKETT The performance of British and Empire forces against the Japanese in the Far East during 1942 is generally regarded as having been… Read More 1940-1942: THE FULCRUM OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY? Burma 1942: SOE’s role in ‘Defeat into Victory’

defenceresearch1 Comment

1940-1942: THE FULCRUM OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY? ‘Halfway Out of National Danger’: Chiang, Stalin and the Chinese Reaction to Barbarossa

This is the fifth in a series of posts connected to the King’s College Second World War Research Group’s ‘1940-1942: Fulcrum of the Twentieth Century Conference’, held at the JSCSC on June 1st.  PETER HARMSEN Traditionally Chiang Kai-shek has been treated in western historiography as a failure: the man who presided over the epic loss of China. In… Read More 1940-1942: THE FULCRUM OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY? ‘Halfway Out of National Danger’: Chiang, Stalin and the Chinese Reaction to Barbarossa

defenceresearch3 Comments

Brexit and International Security: A Guide for Undecided Voters

DR BEN KIENZLE The most recent polls for the referendum on Britain leaving the European Union suggest that neither the ‘Brexit’ nor the ‘Bremain’ camps have mustered the necessary support to win today. The still undecided voters will certainly play a crucial role. So, how should these voters take their decision? The most obvious approach… Read More Brexit and International Security: A Guide for Undecided Voters

defenceresearchLeave a comment

1940-1942: THE FULCRUM OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY? Missing in History: Britain’s offer of Irish unity in 1940

This is the fourth in a series of posts connected to the King’s College Second World War Research Group’s ‘1940-1942: Fulcrum of the Twentieth Century Conference’, held at the JSCSC on June 1st.  DR KEVIN MATTHEWS Sifting through the voluminous histories of Britain’s 1940 stand against Nazi Germany, it is remarkable that, with a few notable exceptions, one… Read More 1940-1942: THE FULCRUM OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY? Missing in History: Britain’s offer of Irish unity in 1940

defenceresearchLeave a comment

1940-1942: The Fulcrum of the Twentieth Century? The Will to Win: British Strategy, Propaganda and Public Opinion 1940-1942

This is the third in a series of posts connected to the King’s College Second World War Research Group’s ‘1940-1942: Fulcrum of the Twentieth Century Conference’, held at the JSCSC on June 1st.  PROF STEPHEN BADSEY Stephen Badsey PhD MA (Cantab.) FRHistS is Professor of Conflict Studies in the Department of History, Politics and War Studies at the University of… Read More 1940-1942: The Fulcrum of the Twentieth Century? The Will to Win: British Strategy, Propaganda and Public Opinion 1940-1942

defenceresearchLeave a comment

1940-42 The Fulcrum of the Twentieth Century: “THE BARTHOLOMEW COMMITTEE: AN OPPORTUNITY LOST?”

This is the second in a series of posts connected to the King’s College Second World War Research Group’s ‘1940-1942: Fulcrum of the Twentieth Century Conference’, held at the JSCSC on June 1st.  PHIL McCARTY After the conclusion of Operation Dynamo on 3 June 1940, the War Office reacted quickly to form a committee to… Read More 1940-42 The Fulcrum of the Twentieth Century: “THE BARTHOLOMEW COMMITTEE: AN OPPORTUNITY LOST?”

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Conference Report: 1940-1942: The Fulcrum of the Twentieth Century?

DR RICHARD HAMMOND On 1 June, the Second World War Research Group held a highly successful day-long event hosted by the Defence Studies Department at the JSCSC. It was inspired in a broad sense by the desire to examine the largest war the world has ever seen and to place it within its broader context.… Read More Conference Report: 1940-1942: The Fulcrum of the Twentieth Century?

defenceresearch5 Comments

TURKEY’S KURDISH PROBLEM(S), THE KURDS’ TURKISH PROBLEM(S), AND THE CRISES IN THE MIDDLE EAST (Part 2)

BY BILL PARK This is the second of a two-part series on the topic. The first of which was posted week on the Defence-in-Depth blog. Turkey’s transborder Kurdish problem There can be little doubt that both Ankara and Turkey’s Kurdish nationalists have been influenced by developments in Syria. Many of Turkey’s Kurds are inspired by… Read More TURKEY’S KURDISH PROBLEM(S), THE KURDS’ TURKISH PROBLEM(S), AND THE CRISES IN THE MIDDLE EAST (Part 2)

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Conference Report: Jutland, History and the First World War

This is the fifth in a series of posts connected to a King’s College First World War Research Group and Corbett Centre Event to mark the centenary of the Battle of Jutland. Recordings of all of the papers from the event can be accessed for free here. DR DAVID MORGAN-OWEN The role of sea power in the First World War was… Read More Conference Report: Jutland, History and the First World War

davidmorganowen1 Comment
#####EOF##### European Union – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: European Union

UK Sanction Policies after Brexit: A Strategic Perspective

BEN KIENZLE is a Lecturer in Defence Studies at King’s College London In recent months, the European Union Committee of the House of Lords has published its report on sanctions after Brexit (followed two months later by an official government response). The report highlights quite rightly that ‘the most effective sanctions regimes are designed and… Read More UK Sanction Policies after Brexit: A Strategic Perspective

benkienzleLeave a comment

Transatlantic Burden-Sharing: Origins and Strategic Implications

JORDAN BECKER is a U.S. Army officer and a member of NATO’s International Military Staff. His work here represents his own views and not those of the U.S. government or NATO. “Burden-sharing” has been an issue for NATO since its birth. Allies have continually found it challenging to deter adversaries without inviting free-riding, and the… Read More Transatlantic Burden-Sharing: Origins and Strategic Implications

benkienzleLeave a comment

No news is good news? The field of security & defence one year after the Brexit referendum

DR BEN KIENZLE On 23 June 2016, the British people voted to leave the European Union (EU). This has been widely seen as one of the most important strategic decisions of the UK in a generation. In the immediate aftermath of the EU referendum, Ellen Hallams and Ben Kienzle have brought together researchers from King’s… Read More No news is good news? The field of security & defence one year after the Brexit referendum

benkienzleLeave a comment

Brexit has given an impetus to reshape Europe’s foreign, security and defence policies

DR BEN KIENZLE and DR INEZ VON WEITERSHAUSEN This post originally appeared on the LSE’s Brexit Blog – a multidisciplinary, evidence-based blog run by the London School of Economics and Political Science. Follow the LSE’s Brexit blog on Twitter @lsebrexitvote Foreign policy, security or defence are traditionally considered matters of ‘high politics’, i.e. areas over which… Read More Brexit has given an impetus to reshape Europe’s foreign, security and defence policies

benkienzleLeave a comment

European Strategic Autonomy after the Brexit

PROF SVEN BISCOP Prof. Biscop is the Director of the Europe in the World Programme at the Egmont – Royal Institute for International Relations in Brussels, and a Professor at Ghent University. He is an Honorary Fellow of the European Security and Defence College. The EU Global Strategy for Foreign and Security Policy (EUGS) is one… Read More European Strategic Autonomy after the Brexit

defenceresearch1 Comment

EU Governance: Troubled internally and when used as a foreign policy

Dr Amir M Kamel The foundation of the European Union (EU) is built on the belief that the pooling of natural resources creates a framework for interdependence, which in turn eliminates the potential for conflict. As I noted in my previous Defence-in-Depth piece The EU: A model for economic governance?, this ideal is rooted in Liberal… Read More EU Governance: Troubled internally and when used as a foreign policy

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Brexit and International Security: A Guide for Undecided Voters

DR BEN KIENZLE The most recent polls for the referendum on Britain leaving the European Union suggest that neither the ‘Brexit’ nor the ‘Bremain’ camps have mustered the necessary support to win today. The still undecided voters will certainly play a crucial role. So, how should these voters take their decision? The most obvious approach… Read More Brexit and International Security: A Guide for Undecided Voters

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Why ‘defence’ does not serve as a suitable argument in the Brexit debate

DR BEN KIENZLE Only one month remains until British voters can decide if the UK should leave or stay in the EU. Naturally, the debate about the benefits and disadvantages of British membership in the EU is heating up. Almost each day, the supporters of ‘Brexit’ and ‘Bremain’ vie with each other for the best… Read More Why ‘defence’ does not serve as a suitable argument in the Brexit debate

defenceresearch2 Comments
#####EOF##### February 2017 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: February 2017

Conference Report: Commemorating the Centenary of the First World War

DR AIMÉE FOX-GODDEN & DR DAVID MORGAN-OWEN This post reflects upon an event held on January 12th in the River Room at King’s College London. The symposium featured contributions from Prof Jay Winter, Dr Helen McCartney, Prof Annika Mombauer, Hanna Smyth, Dr Jenny Macleod, Dr Heather Jones, and Dr Catriona Pennell. Recordings of all of… Read More Conference Report: Commemorating the Centenary of the First World War

davidmorganowen1 Comment

The Operational Level as Military Innovation: Past, Present and Future

DR STUART GRIFFIN As Defence-in-Depth once again spends time exploring the concepts of the operational level and operational art, it seems an appropriate time to relate my previous contribution on the subject to the other research strand that I have previously blogged about: military innovation. Though the popular focus of military innovation tends to be… Read More The Operational Level as Military Innovation: Past, Present and Future

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The operational level of war and maritime forces

DR. TIM BENBOW The recurrent debate over whether or not the operational level of war exists can sometimes feel like the land component talking to itself.  The vast majority of what is written about the operational level, and operational art, focusses predominantly on land operations.  It is rare to find an acknowledgement of the significance… Read More The operational level of war and maritime forces

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Using Military History: Doctrine as an Analytical Tool for Historical Campaigns

DR HUW J. DAVIES James Wolfe was a great advocate of using military history to help inform his understanding of new situations and challenges he faced throughout his career. ‘The more a soldier thinks of the false steps of those that have gone before him, the more likely is he to avoid them’, he wrote… Read More Using Military History: Doctrine as an Analytical Tool for Historical Campaigns

huwjdavies2 Comments

The Russian military’s view on the utility of force: the adoption of a strategy of non-violent asymmetric warfare

By Dr. Rod Thornton Russian military thinking seems to have reached the point now where the idea of using force intentionally in conflicts with peer-state adversaries has been almost completely ruled out. This seems a radical move. But there has been a clear recognition within this military that better strategic outcomes for Russia will result… Read More The Russian military’s view on the utility of force: the adoption of a strategy of non-violent asymmetric warfare

defenceresearch1 Comment

Breaking: Opening salvo fired in coming war with machines

Dr. Ken Payne DeepMind, the world’s leading Artificial Intelligence outfit, has released a remarkable new study with implications for those of us interested in war, cooperation, and the strategic ramifications of AI. You can read and watch it here. In short, their agents demonstrated the ability to relate socially in a competitive environment. When resources… Read More Breaking: Opening salvo fired in coming war with machines

defenceresearchLeave a comment

2017 – the Year of the Royal Navy: time to get real?

Professor Andrew M Dorman and Professor Matthew R H Uttley Centre for British Defence and Security Studies As we entered 2017 the Ministry of Defence earmarked 2017 as the ‘year of the Royal Navy (RN)’. In the press release that accompanied the announcement key milestones for 2017 were highlighted, including the new aircraft carrier HMS… Read More 2017 – the Year of the Royal Navy: time to get real?

defenceresearch5 Comments

Beyond Effectiveness on the Battlefield: reframing Military Innovation in terms of time, networks and power

This is one in a series of occasional posts from scholars outside of the Defence Studies Department. If you would be interested to contribute to this series please contact the editors: Dr Amir Kamel and Dr David Morgan-Owen.  DR MATTHEW FORD Dr Matthew Ford is a Senior Lecturer in International Relations at the University of Sussex. His book Weapon of… Read More Beyond Effectiveness on the Battlefield: reframing Military Innovation in terms of time, networks and power

defenceresearch1 Comment

Sea Power, Alliances, and Diplomacy: British Naval Supremacy in the Great War Era

LOUIS HALEWOOD Louis is a current DPhil student at the University of Oxford. He holds an MA in History from the University of Calgary. Louis is co-organiser of the upcoming ‘Economic Warfare and the Sea’ Conference, to be held at All SoulS College in July 2017. A recording of the talk this post is drawn from is… Read More Sea Power, Alliances, and Diplomacy: British Naval Supremacy in the Great War Era

defenceresearch3 Comments

The Age of Uncertainty: US Foreign Policy in the Trump Era?

By Dr. Ellen Hallams and Dr. Tracey German In April 2016, Donald Trump declared ‘We must as a nation be more unpredictable.’ In a speech on foreign policy during the Republican primary campaign, Trump – who at that point was the front-runner for the GOP nomination – set out what the New York Times in… Read More The Age of Uncertainty: US Foreign Policy in the Trump Era?

defenceresearch1 Comment
#####EOF##### The Necessary Death of the One-size-fits-all Approach: Transformative Pedagogy in Higher Military Education – Defence-In-Depth

The Necessary Death of the One-size-fits-all Approach: Transformative Pedagogy in Higher Military Education

EMILIE CLERET

Emilie Alice Cléret is Head of the English Department within the Enseignement militaire supérieur – the French Higher Military Education. She designs the English courses for the Ecole de guerre– the French War College – and for the Centre des hautes etudes militaires– the higher command and staff course. You can read more about her work with the French War College language training programme here, and you can follow her on Twitter at Emilie Alice Cleret @cler_em or connect with her via LinkedIn.

This piece examines the transition over two years at Ecole de Guerre from traditional education methods to a transformative approach, focusing on the English-language programme for French military officers as a case study.

Language Training & PME in France:

Th Ecole de Guerre academy is located in the heart of Paris, opposite the Eiffel Tower, within a unique heritage monument called the Ecole Militaire. It was founded in 1751 by King Louis XV and it embraces a long-standing military tradition. Every year, between 150 and 200 French senior officers from the 9/11 generation join Ecole de Guerre for a one-year course after selection through a very competitive exam that requires two years’ preparation. They come from the Army, the Navy, the Air Force, the Gendarmerie, and military directorates, and have about fifteen years of operational and command experience. In addition, about 70 foreign officers from 60 different countries join the cohort every September.

The main objective of the course is to shape future leaders for joint, intergovernmental, interagency, and multinational operational environments by providing well-trained and well-educated senior officers, many of whom go on to command regiments, ships or air bases.  The officers must shift their thinking from tactical level to wider operational and higher strategic levels.  For the students, this is a decisive yet difficult turn in their military career.

The young men and women they were when they joined the military academies were attracted by the prospect of carrying out operations at the tactical level, as opposed to favoring operational theory, which connects tactical details to strategic goals.

During their years of command at tactical level, they have become conditioned to jumping in and getting things done with a real sense of accomplishment by controlling the mission and delivering the desired results. Objectives and metrics are clear, choices are limited and results are within their control. The idea of removing one’s self from day-to-day problem-solving to focus on the big-picture issues of determining the right course for the future is a difficult transition because the outcomes of one’s work becomes less tangible and less immediate. Tough decisions must be made across a myriad of options with limited information, ambiguous metrics and limited control of outcomes.

For many years, their success has been about “doing things right”. They now have to focus on honing how to choose the “right things to do” whilst they watch others carry out these missions and enjoy the immediate outcomes.

This transformation requires them to actually let go of certain skills that were the corner stone of tactical success and develop new ones. For us as educators, it is therefore crucial to find an approach to learning that will support this change in the professional expectations placed upon our students.

At the War College, officers augment their experience, military culture and methodology to heighten their effectiveness as leaders. This includes a focus on oral and written expression to boost their powers of communication; their future battles will be mostly in meetings of strategic importance. For the English program, the aim was and remains to complement this desired development in an officer’s thinking with a similar shift from passive to autonomous learning.

Until recently there was no formal English training in the French War College. France’s return to the NATO in 2009 was the necessary wake-up call. The English Department was founded in 2010 to train officers to effectively express, promote and defend France’s strategic interests in an English-speaking environment, a challenge demanding not only an advanced level of English but also strong cultural competence and leadership skills.

The Challenges and Opportunities of Adult Learning:

Learners, in order to be motivated and active, must feel comfortable in their learning environment and, ideally, perceive that their career needs are being met. Adult minds means a diversity in terms of knowledge, professional experience, emotional intelligence, academic background, exposure to the language, perception of the language, cultural competence and tolerance of ambiguity.

Over several years, the English programme’s very low approval ratings from students suggested that the curriculum and teaching methods were not meeting their expectations. The faculty soon came to realise that this was due to a traditional top-down one-size-fits-all approach. This fosters an educational ethos where learning continues to be defined in terms reminiscent of secondary or even primary levels of education, and assertive means are used to make students do that work. It was infantilising and wasn’t supporting the officers in making the necessary moves to break out of their prescriptive assumptions to embrace new sets of skills.

A one-size-fits-all syllabus designed according to the principles of a communicative approach had been chosen because French students overwhelmingly complain that their English courses at school focused too much on linguistic patterns and grammar rather than oral communication. Nevertheless, they stated in their feedback that they felt they were never given opportunities to express how their needs could be met.

So why such dissatisfaction? In fact, it appears that, “how can we motivate learners?” was the wrong question because it leads pedagogical staff and teachers to make choices on behalf of learners that often result in artificial and inappropriate answers. Any needs analysis filtered solely through the faculty’s own framework results in a process inherently unfit for adult learners because it leaves them out of the equation by not valuing their experience, not addressing what they regard as immediately useful and not discussing a learning contract with them. The right question is the opposite: “what makes learners lose their natural motivation?” The course design and the curriculum were acting as stumbling blocks between the teachers and the learners.

This cause of demotivation could be called “anticipated” teaching – all aspects of prepared teaching are predetermined ahead of the act of teaching. This anticipated teaching takes many forms, “manuals”, “syllabi” or “curricula”. Yet however well designed, a one-size-fits-all course that is pre-written and then forced on the learner is likely to impair motivation.

Transformation:

The solution seemed to lie in redesigning the syllabus using a transformative approach, i.e. a model of adult learning that distinguishes between learners as receptacles of knowledge versus learners who are actively engaged through critical reflection and discourse to question assumptions, expectations, and contexts to achieve deeper meaning and new perspectives to guide their actions. Ecole de Guerre decided to introduce transformative pedagogy into its foreign language programmes in May 2016 so that the newly designed English programme could be launched in September 2016. To do so, it was key to understand that the challenges actually lie in the learning environment.

In France, the sage on the stage spoon-feeds knowledge. Understanding and acquiring that knowledge is a solitary and silent process for the learner. Culturally, in this vertical structure, learners do not negotiate or debate with a teacher (just as, importantly in this context, you don’t with a higher-ranking officer).

French learners can be reluctant to learn English for historical, linguistic and cultural reasons. The most salient point is that the French identify the English language with the English people who have mostly been their violent enemy.  The French language underwent huge phonetic changes between Old French and the modern language: the loss of final consonants, weakened pronunciation of diphthongs, etc. Thus, the English language is counter-intuitive to the French learner. In addition to the learners’ national culture and academic background, it is necessary to add military culture into the equation.

Although aware of what needed to be changed and why, the directing staff had to be convinced to support the chosen strategy and process. It proved more effective to demonstrate what would be the outcomes using examples such as honing cross-cultural understanding and becoming more effective working with American or British counterparts. Military culture is very pragmatic – approval of a course of action is by reference to observable outcomes.

Creating a transformative learning environment requires a lot of work from faculty prior to the beginning of the course. Each student is interviewed individually to find out who they are, and more precisely, their exposure to the language, how they perceive their own level, how they relate to the language, their linguistic awareness, their expectations and their needs. We discuss the English programme with them to help them understand it is flexible and adaptable.

Once we have an accurate description of each profile, we tailor the training to the students. We put them together into groups of 8, taking into account their command of English, how they relate to the language, their international exposure, needs, expectations, and interests.

By creating these homogeneous groups, we make it possible for the teachers to design, add into, or change their lesson plans as they deliver.

To do so, you need the best match between the students and the teacher. This means one needs to know the profile of the teachers perfectly – their area of expertise, their comfort zone, their strengths and weaknesses.

Fully aware that a transformative approach is fundamentally different from the students’ academic culture, we have to gradually lead them to taking over their own learning process. We try, step by step, to bring in the seven conditions identified by Jack Mezirow to help students engage freely and fully participate in discourse in order to achieve transformation.

The first module puts the teacher in a very directive role but already preparing for transformative learning by adopting rituals, assigning and rotating roles to create trust within the group – teacher and students – crucial to foster transformation. It certainly creates “a willingness to seek understanding, agreement, and a tentative best judgment as a test of validity until new perspectives, evidence, or arguments are encountered and validated through discourse as yielding a better judgment” (Mezirow, 2009). They are gradually given “more accurate and complete information” as to how the teacher hands over tasks and decisions to them. The teachers being from a different cultural background will always suggest their point of view, explaining how their cultural bias operates to trigger “openness to alternative points of view and empathy and concern about how others think and feel”.

The second module moves into a transaction mode using a more communicative approach. The use of inductive activities, especially debating, offers opportunities to question and triggers critical dialogue thus honing “the ability to weigh evidence and assess arguments objectively” and the “awareness of the context of ideas and taken-for-granted assumptions”. Debate, as formatted public-speaking, generates “equal opportunity to participate in the various roles of discourse” and cultural awareness of different ways of reasoning from a Cartesian construct.

The third module will turn to a learner-led approach. The teacher initiates and facilitates a brainstorm to collect the students’ input to suggest a learning process that they can accept or reject until the group reaches consensus, free “from coercion and distorting self-deception.”

Transformative pedagogy mainly comes down to teachers finding out student aims (language, skills, subject matter, exams) and students accepting their responsibility in building the lessons; teaching then follows a transformative student-led approach, with constant reference to cultural insights.  Weaker students tend to ask for teacher direction within traditional pedagogical approaches.  Preparation for specific exams – increasingly demanded for career development – leans heavily on grammar-translation and drills.  In the advanced groups, students can decide to focus the English component of their course on specific projects such as debating, writing a research paper or organising seminars. They take the lead on tasks discussed with external partners in a mix of autonomous learning, project management, cultural awareness and communication skills.  As for teachers, weary at first, they have fully embraced transformative pedagogy because it is a broad church, which is exactly what Ecole de Guerre needs.

 

References:

Cleret, E. (2018). Transformation at the learner, teacher, and instruction Levels: One teacher’s story at the French War College. Dialogue on Language Instruction28(1): 52-64.

Leaver, B. L., & Cleret, E. (2018). “Developing intercultural competence and idiocultural transformation in foreign language programs.” In Welsch, Marguerite, Victoria Marsick, & Dylan Holt, Eds. Building Transformative Community: Exacting Possibility in Today’s Times: Proceedings of the XIII Biennial Transformative Learning Conference(pp. 405-411). NY: Teachers College, Columbia University.

Leaver, B. L., & Willis, J. R. (2004). Task-based instruction in foreign language education: Practices and programs. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

Mezirow, J. (1978).  “Perspective Transformation,” in AEQ (Adult Education Quarterly).

Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult education. NY: John Wiley & Sons.

Mezirow, J., & Associates. (2000). Learning as Transformation. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass

Mezirow, J., & Taylor, E.W., eds. (2009). Transformative learning in practice: Insights from community, workplace and higher education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass

Rogers, C. (1986). Freedom to learn: A view of what education might become (second edition). Merrill Publishing Company. Indianapolis: Merrill Publishing Company. (First edition published 1969.)

Stryker, S. B., & Leaver, B. L. (1997). Content-based instruction: Models and methods. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.

Image: Central building of the Ecole Militarie, via wikimedia commons.

Leave a Reply

Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in:

Gravatar
WordPress.com Logo

You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Google photo

You are commenting using your Google account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Twitter picture

You are commenting using your Twitter account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Facebook photo

You are commenting using your Facebook account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Cancel

Connecting to %s

%d bloggers like this:
#####EOF##### February 2016 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: February 2016

Iraq: Shi’a Militias – Partners or Contestants of Iraqi Stability

This is the third in a series of posts to come out of the Regional Security Research Centre (RSRC) organised Round Table titled ‘Decoding IS [DAISH] – Retrospect and Prospect’, which took place on 8 February 2016. The Round Table covered issues concerned with the evolution, regional linkages, strategy and tactics, as well as the future… Read More Iraq: Shi’a Militias – Partners or Contestants of Iraqi Stability

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Battle of Verdun and German Offensive Tactics in 1916

This is the third of three posts covering German planning for Operation Gericht, their offensive at Verdun. This month marks the 100th anniversary of the beginning of this battle, which would last, including French counter-offensives, until the end of 1916. Although it is not as well remembered in Britain today, the ‘hell of Verdun’ left… Read More The Battle of Verdun and German Offensive Tactics in 1916

Robert T. Foley5 Comments

Article Writing Month: On Community and Progress

DR DAVID MORGAN-OWEN The Defence Studies Department’s article writing month initiative is now in its third week. Judging by our shared googledocs page, my colleagues appear to be making impressive progress towards their writing goals. Personally, I am working to finish a book manuscript; a process which involves as much deleting as it does new… Read More Article Writing Month: On Community and Progress

davidmorganowen1 Comment

Walking a Tightrope: NATO, Russia, Islamic State and the new brinkmanship

DR ELLEN HALLAMS During the first week of February I was asked to deliver a talk at the annual Norwegian Air Power Conference at the Royal Norwegian Air Force Academy in Trondheim. The theme this year was ‘NATO: Threats and Challenges’ and I was asked to reflect on whether NATO today has common threats and… Read More Walking a Tightrope: NATO, Russia, Islamic State and the new brinkmanship

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Battle of Verdun and German Operational Art in 1916

This is the second of three posts covering German planning for Operation Gericht, their offensive at Verdun. This month marks the 100th anniversary of the beginning of this battle, which would last, including French counter-offensives, until the end of 1916. Although it is not as well remembered in Britain today, the ‘hell of Verdun’ left… Read More The Battle of Verdun and German Operational Art in 1916

Robert T. Foley2 Comments

Palestine 1945-48: the Information Campaign and the Limits of Influence

DR KATE UTTING In the past information, influence or non-kinetic psychological aspects of conflict had a supporting function to the physical, kinetic aspects; today it is seen as central. Militaries have done ‘influence’ for years, but there is a dominant view that in the current information environment all actions, deeds and words are scrutinised in… Read More Palestine 1945-48: the Information Campaign and the Limits of Influence

defenceresearch1 Comment

The Battle of Verdun and German Strategy in 1916

This is the first of three posts covering German planning for Operation Gericht, their offensive at Verdun. This month marks the 100th anniversary of the beginning of this battle, which would last, including French counter-offensives, until the end of 1916. Although it is not as well remembered in Britain today, the ‘hell of Verdun’ left… Read More The Battle of Verdun and German Strategy in 1916

Robert T. Foley7 Comments

Research Dispatch from Sydney: New Directions in War and History

by Dr Huw J. Davies  Today is the penultimate day of my research trip to Sydney (with Canberra and Wellington thrown in). The trip has been what I now call a harvest. I’ve photographed literally thousands of documents, unsure whether they are useful. I’m deferring the actual process of research until a later date. Still,… Read More Research Dispatch from Sydney: New Directions in War and History

huwjdavies2 Comments
#####EOF##### The Furlough Mutiny and the Struggle for Cassino in the Second World War – Defence-In-Depth

The Furlough Mutiny and the Struggle for Cassino in the Second World War

JONATHAN FENNELL

Jonathan Fennell is author of Fighting the People’s War: The British and Commonwealth Armies and the Second World War, which was published by Cambridge University Press in February 2019.

Three quarters of a century ago, soldiers of the British and Commonwealth Armies were embroiled in one of the iconic battles of the Second World War – the struggle to take the town of Cassino in Italy and the famous monastery that lay atop the imposing mountain that overlooked it. Historians have long argued about why the Allies failed on three occasions to unlock the German defences, before eventually breaking through to Rome. New research shows, for the first time, that it was not just matters on the front line that influenced the outcome of these great offensives, but issues far away on the home front – in New Zealand.

The Cassino Battles

Cassino guarded the entrance to the Liri Valley, the best route available to the Allied armies on their advance towards Rome in 1944. In the first battle of Cassino in January 1944, US and British forces had tried to prise the Germans out of their formidable defences through manoeuvre – involving a landing on the beaches of Anzio behind enemy lines. When that failed, the battle was handed over to 2ndNew Zealand and 4thIndian Divisions, two of the most experienced formations in the British and Commonwealth Armies in Italy. The second battle was, much like the first, a costly failure; the use of massed bombing from the air backfired when the monastery, as a consequence of this controversial course of action, was turned into a fortress of rubble by the Allied bombers.

For the third attempt, a new plan was devised. This time, rather than going straight for the monastery, 2nd New Zealand Division would capture the town itself and a height above it that would provide 4th Indian Division with a firm base from which to attack the ancient monastery. Major-General Alexander Galloway, in temporary command of 4th Indian Division, stressed the extent to which the success of this new plan was dependent on the New Zealanders. Unless 2nd New Zealand Division could protect theleft flank of the Indians by clearing Cassino town, his job would be ‘almost impossible’.

The assault, which went in on 15 March, was preceded by a massive aerial blitz; 514 aircraft dropped 1,140 tons of bombs on the town. Some 900 pieces of artillery added their fire in a prolonged barrage that allocated 4 or 5 tons of explosive for every German defender. At first, the assault met little opposition and casualties were light. Prisoners taken were stunned by the sheer weight of Allied firepower. However, progress slowed in the crater-strewn rubble, and when 4th Indian Division moved forward, Cassino town had not been cleared. As Galloway predicted, the attack failed. The speed and initiative necessary to overcome the formidable German defences had been sorely lacking.

What went wrong? The relative numbers of troops engaged at Third Cassino cannot, in itself, explain the performance of the New Zealanders – who, at the key point had a numerical advantage as high as perhaps 8-1. The plan, too, was perfectly workable. In fact, a large part of the cause of the setback lay 11,500 miles away from the maelstrom unfolding in the Apennines.

Home Front: The Furlough Mutiny

By 1943/4, the British and Commonwealth forces fighting in the Mediterranean were, according to one report, ‘tired, not only in body, but in spirit also’.At the start of August 1943, censorship reports on the mail of soldiers identified that many believed that their long period in action ‘morally entitle[d] them’ to leave. In light of the prevailing mood, the New Zealand Government decided to give 6,000 men in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF) furlough, or leave, back home. This equated to about 20 per cent of the New Zealand forces in theatre and a third of 2nd New Zealand Division.

The New Zealand Government had promised to avoid conflict about equality during the war; powers to conscript wealth were to equal those to conscript men. However, in reality, the war served to exacerbate inequalities. By 1943, there were 35,000 Grade ‘A’ men at home, fit enough to go overseas but who held jobs in ‘essential industry’. The 6,000 furlough men were stunned by this situation when they returned home and insisted, in the interest of fairness, that these men had to replace those who had already done their duty in the war in Europe. ‘No man twice, before every man once’ became the battle cry of the furlough men.

The Labour Government refused to bend to the furlough men’s wishes, leading to a revolt that resulted in only 13 per cent of the men returning to the Mediterranean. The ‘Furlough Mutiny’, as it became known, arguably represented the most severe outbreak of indiscipline in any British and Commonwealth force in both world wars.

Battlefront: Crisis at Cassino

The mutiny had two key consequences: the 2ndNew Zealand Division had to go into battle without a significant cohort of its most experienced veterans; and those that were left to fight suffered a serious crisis in morale. By the start of January 1944, the censors reported that there were ‘definite signs of war weariness and homesickness in almost 25% of the letters’ sent by the division. By mid-January, 50 per cent of letters had a ‘homesick’ tone. Ten per cent of letters showed a distinct sense of dissatisfaction at the unequal sacrifices being made in the war effort. A sergeant wrote:

It’s foolish to try and blink the fact that men over here are becoming more and more aware of the extent to which they have been ‘carrying the baby’ for years for lots of people at home.

By the beginning of the Second Battle of Cassino, there had been a ‘decided drop in morale’, and letters were ‘distinctly gloomy’. The prevailing conditions had ‘made the men “furlough conscious”’ with many letters referring to the mishandling of the scheme in New Zealand and the thousands of ‘essentials’ that could be used to replace them on the front line. In the run-up to the Third Battle of Cassino, the censors again noted a ‘drop [in morale] over the whole of the Div’.

The sickness rate in the division, a good barometer of morale, rose in the lead up to the third battle. Between embarkation for Italy and March 1944,the sickness rate for other ranks in 2ndNew Zealand Division increased by 96 per cent, that for officers by a remarkable 162 per cent. The battle exhaustion rate was also alarming. Whereas cases of battle exhaustion had accounted for 9 per cent of casualties in the heavy fighting in Italy in December 1943, they amounted to 34 per cent of casualties in February and 36 per cent in March 1944.

Turn Around: The Liberation of Rome

By any standards, this evidence indicates a catastrophic collapse in morale. Lieutenant-General Bernard Freyberg, the commander of 2ndNew Zealand Division, wrote to the New Zealand Prime Minister after the battle that, ‘I have come to the conclusion that the time may well be opportune for the complete withdrawal of 2NZEF’ to New Zealand. The success of the fourth battle of Cassino was in no small part built on this understanding.

In many ways, the British and Commonwealth Armies in Italy had finally reached the limits of endurance. The men, many of whom had been away from their families for between three and five years, longed for a break. Harold Alexander, the Commander of the Allied land forces in theatre, decided, therefore, to almost completely replace the fighting formations of his forces. Four British and Commonwealth divisions (two British, one Indian and one South African), two armoured brigades and one tank brigade were sent for from the Middle East. These were joined by the Polish Corps, two US infantry divisions, and two French infantry divisions. The new plan was to concentrate these formations on one side of the Apennines and attack the enemy with overwhelming force using almost completely fresh formations. It worked, leading to the liberation of the eternal city in June 1944. When the British and Commonwealth forces in Italy were most in need of a lift, when they had almost reached the very limit of their power and endurance, the power and scale of the Empire, and its allies, had played out with decisive effect.

Image: Third Phase of the Battle of Cassino, 11 – 18 May 1944: A low aerial view of the Monastery showing its complete destruction, via wikimedia commons.

Leave a Reply

Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in:

Gravatar
WordPress.com Logo

You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Google photo

You are commenting using your Google account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Twitter picture

You are commenting using your Twitter account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Facebook photo

You are commenting using your Facebook account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Cancel

Connecting to %s

%d bloggers like this:
#####EOF##### October 2018 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: October 2018

Trust Me, I’m a Military Professional

Review of Redefining the Modern Military: The Intersection of Profession and Ethics, Nathan K. Finney and Tyrell O. Mayfield (eds.) Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2018. DR DEANE-PETER BAKER Deane Baker is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Humanities and Social Sciences at UNSW Canberra, and a Visiting Senior Research Fellow in the Centre… Read More Trust Me, I’m a Military Professional

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### USA – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: USA

AMERICAN EMPIRE: REALITIES AND UNCERTAINTIES

A.G. HOPKINS Tony Hopkins is Emeritus Smuts Professor of Commonwealth History in the University of Cambridge, Emeritus Fellow of Pembroke College, and Emeritus Walter Prescott Webb Chair in History in the University of Texas at Austin. He holds a Ph.D. from the University of London, Honorary Doctorates from the Universities of Stirling and Birmingham, and… Read More AMERICAN EMPIRE: REALITIES AND UNCERTAINTIES

defenceresearch1 Comment

Channelling Fanon: What Childish Gambino tells us about Violence and Urban Space

MATT LEWIS What is violence? An instrumental means to an end? Or the end itself? Is violence the visceral embodiment of a long held grievance, rather than a tool to change the aggrieving behaviour? Earlier this month, Childish Gambino’s ‘This is America’ presented a gut-wrenching visualisation of randomised and anonymised violence in urban America: one… Read More Channelling Fanon: What Childish Gambino tells us about Violence and Urban Space

benkienzle1 Comment

Space Warfare in the Pentagon: In Support of an Independent Space Corps

DR BLEDDYN BOWEN The US Department of Defense and the House of Representatives have been abuzz of late regarding the question of setting up an independent space corps within the US Air Force (USAF).  The House Armed Services strategic forces subcommittee unveiled their intention to legislate this space corps loosely along the lines of the… Read More Space Warfare in the Pentagon: In Support of an Independent Space Corps

defenceresearch3 Comments

Stuck in Endless Preliminaries: Vietnam and the Battle of the Paris Peace Table, November 1968-January 1969

DR JEFFREY MICHAELS In the anti-war film Go Tell the Spartans, set in Vietnam in 1964, the conflict is described as ‘going nowhere, just around and around in circles’. Perhaps a slightly more accurate representation can be found in the work of Franz Kafka, such as Der Prozeß, in which his protagonist seems to make… Read More Stuck in Endless Preliminaries: Vietnam and the Battle of the Paris Peace Table, November 1968-January 1969

benkienzleLeave a comment

The Path to War: America and the First World War a Century On

Michael Neiberg is the inaugural Chair of War Studies at the US Army War College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania and the author, most recently, of Path to War: How the First World War Created Modern America (Oxford University Press). You can hear Mike discuss the new book here and here. The views expressed herein are his alone and do not represent… Read More The Path to War: America and the First World War a Century On

defenceresearch2 Comments

China’s space weapons test ten years on: Behemoth pulls the peasants’ plough

DR BLEDDYN BOWEN This post is based aspects of a forthcoming paper presented at the ISA Annual Convention 2017 in Baltimore, MD. Ten years ago, on 11th January 2007, a road-mobile SC-19 Chinese antisatellite (ASAT) weapons test renewed interest, debate, and occasional polemic hysteria, in the role of space weapons in international security and Sino-US… Read More China’s space weapons test ten years on: Behemoth pulls the peasants’ plough

defenceresearch2 Comments

Watching the Start of a New American Era from the Edge of the World

WHITNEY GRESPIN On November 8 – the second Tuesday of November – I found myself in Anchorage, Alaska watching the poll counts climb state by state while the minutes passed. As polls closed and states on TV monitors lit up as either blue or red, ebullient celebration or quiet resignation crossed the faces of those… Read More Watching the Start of a New American Era from the Edge of the World

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Deterrence – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Deterrence

NATO’s deterrence moves in the Baltic States: falling into Russia’s trap?

Dr Rod Thornton NATO has decided to increase the number of troops it has operating (technically, either training or exercising) in the Baltic States. Included  in this contingent will be no less than four British tanks. The stated reason for this deployment is to ‘deter’ Russian aggression against Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. All well and… Read More NATO’s deterrence moves in the Baltic States: falling into Russia’s trap?

defenceresearch1 Comment

NATO and the challenges of implementing effective deterrence vis-à-vis Russia

PROFESSOR WYN BOWEN In the run up to the July 2016 NATO Summit in Warsaw, the British and Polish Embassies in Copenhagen, hosted by the Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, organised a one-day conference on ‘Transforming NATO in an Unpredictable Security Environment’. At the event in March I gave a talk on a topic related… Read More NATO and the challenges of implementing effective deterrence vis-à-vis Russia

defenceresearchLeave a comment

LITTLE GREEN MEN AND RED ARMIES: WHY RUSSIAN ‘HYBRID WAR’ IS NOT NEW

DR GERAINT HUGHES Ever since the annexation of Crimea in February-March 2014, and the conflict in Eastern Ukraine, military analysts have debated the nature of ‘hybrid war’ – or ‘non-linear’/’ambiguous warfare’ – and whether it represents the military strategy of choice for Vladimir Putin’s Russia. The Polish, Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian militaries in particular are using Ukrainian-style… Read More LITTLE GREEN MEN AND RED ARMIES: WHY RUSSIAN ‘HYBRID WAR’ IS NOT NEW

defenceresearch8 Comments

Reflections on Deterrence and the Lessons of History

by PROF WYN BOWEN, DR DAVID JORDAN & DR KATE UTTING The reflections of ‘Cold War warriors’ provided prescient insights into the wider application of deterrence during a recent Witness Seminar organised by the Defence Studies Department and the Institute for Contemporary British History at the Institute of Historical Research. The term ‘deterrence’ is often… Read More Reflections on Deterrence and the Lessons of History

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Nuclear – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Nuclear

Tweet by Tweet: Trump’s Nuclear Musings

Dr. Heather Williams In a recent article titled ‘The nuclear education of Donald J. Trump’, Dr. Jeffrey Michaels and I catalogued almost all of President Trump’s statements regarding nuclear issues over the past thirty years. This catalogue included sources ranging from Playboy to Presidential debates. The study’s findings were both surprising and concerning. The research… Read More Tweet by Tweet: Trump’s Nuclear Musings

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Institutional Complexity and the Fight against the Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

Dr. Benjamin Kienzle When future historians will look back at the late 20th and early 21st Century, one of the most remarkable features of the international system that they will note is the exponential growth of international institutions. At the beginning of the 20th Century there were only slightly more than 30 international intergovernmental organizations… Read More Institutional Complexity and the Fight against the Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Three Questions for Indian Nuclear Policy

BY DR FRANK O’DONNELL India’s nuclear forces are growing in diversity and technical capability. Unprecedented new nuclear posture options are being placed in the hands of Indian defence planners. India today stands ready to field the first of an indigenous fleet of nuclear-armed submarines; ICBM-range ballistic missiles; and a new generation of short-range ballistic missiles.… Read More Three Questions for Indian Nuclear Policy

defenceresearchLeave a comment

FAILING US SANCTIONS AND IRAN’S BEHAVIOUR

by DR AMIR M. KAMEL Using economic sanctions to curb state behaviour is something which has conventionally been considered as an apt supporter or supported government tool alongside military and political levers of power. Indeed, whilst it is increasingly important to combine economic, military, and political methods to achieve influence, it is nevertheless important to… Read More FAILING US SANCTIONS AND IRAN’S BEHAVIOUR

amirmkamelLeave a comment

Reflections on Deterrence and the Lessons of History

by PROF WYN BOWEN, DR DAVID JORDAN & DR KATE UTTING The reflections of ‘Cold War warriors’ provided prescient insights into the wider application of deterrence during a recent Witness Seminar organised by the Defence Studies Department and the Institute for Contemporary British History at the Institute of Historical Research. The term ‘deterrence’ is often… Read More Reflections on Deterrence and the Lessons of History

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### NATO – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: NATO

The Changing Role and Position of Turkish Armed Forces in Turkish Foreign Policy

SELCUK AYDIN The Turkish Armed Forces have been discussed substantially during the last few years in the context of Turkish Foreign Policy due to new developments in the military; such as building a military base in Qatar and Somalia, technological transformation, the S400 strategic defence system deal with Russia, and operations in Iraq and particularly… Read More The Changing Role and Position of Turkish Armed Forces in Turkish Foreign Policy

defenceresearch2 Comments

Is the use of nuclear weapons more likely now? Well, yes…

DR ROD THORNTON Nuclear weapons are, it seems, becoming more and more of a factor in the thinking about how future major wars will be conducted. The recently released United States Nuclear Posture Review (NPR) points to the fact that Washington now wants to increase the size of its nuclear arsenal. Specifically, it seeks to… Read More Is the use of nuclear weapons more likely now? Well, yes…

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Transatlantic Burden-Sharing: Origins and Strategic Implications

JORDAN BECKER is a U.S. Army officer and a member of NATO’s International Military Staff. His work here represents his own views and not those of the U.S. government or NATO. “Burden-sharing” has been an issue for NATO since its birth. Allies have continually found it challenging to deter adversaries without inviting free-riding, and the… Read More Transatlantic Burden-Sharing: Origins and Strategic Implications

benkienzleLeave a comment

Today’s Russian Navy taking the asymmetric route – with caveats

DR ROD THORNTON On the day that the UK’s new aircraft carrier, HMS Queen Elizabeth, put to sea for the first time in June, Defence Secretary Sir Michael Fallon compared it to what he called the ‘old and dilapidated’ Russian carrier, the Admiral Kuznetsov – seen recently operating off Syria. A Russian Defence Ministry spokesman… Read More Today’s Russian Navy taking the asymmetric route – with caveats

defenceresearch4 Comments

The Age of Uncertainty: US Foreign Policy in the Trump Era?

By Dr. Ellen Hallams and Dr. Tracey German In April 2016, Donald Trump declared ‘We must as a nation be more unpredictable.’ In a speech on foreign policy during the Republican primary campaign, Trump – who at that point was the front-runner for the GOP nomination – set out what the New York Times in… Read More The Age of Uncertainty: US Foreign Policy in the Trump Era?

defenceresearch1 Comment

The British Army’s role in defending NATO’s Eastern Border

DR WARREN CHIN This post summarised some of the evidence Dr Chin gave to the House of Commons Defence Select Committee on the British Army and SDSR 15 in October. A recording  of the session is available here. SDSR 15 acknowledged the increased threat posed by Russia to NATO and made clear its intention to deter any future Russian… Read More The British Army’s role in defending NATO’s Eastern Border

defenceresearchLeave a comment

NATO’s deterrence moves in the Baltic States: falling into Russia’s trap?

Dr Rod Thornton NATO has decided to increase the number of troops it has operating (technically, either training or exercising) in the Baltic States. Included  in this contingent will be no less than four British tanks. The stated reason for this deployment is to ‘deter’ Russian aggression against Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. All well and… Read More NATO’s deterrence moves in the Baltic States: falling into Russia’s trap?

defenceresearch1 Comment
#####EOF##### Discussing Defence: Cuthbert Headlam and the Army Quarterly – Defence-In-Depth

Discussing Defence: Cuthbert Headlam and the Army Quarterly

JIM BEACH

Dr Jim Beach of the University of Northampton explains the birth and early years of an important forum for interwar military debate. Jim has edited the military papers of Lieutenant Colonel Cuthbert Headlam for the Army Records Society.

On 24 February ninety-nine years ago, two former British army officers sat down and discussed the creation of a new journal of military affairs.  Guy Dawnay and Cuthbert Headlam were old friends from their university days in Oxford.  In 1918 Guy had been the major-general responsible for doctrine writing at GHQ in France while Cuthbert had been a lieutenant-colonel and author of the British Expeditionary Force’s main doctrine manuals.  Both in their early forties, they were an odd couple.  Guy an outgoing Guards officer and businessman; Cuthbert a more reserved Yeomanry officer and civil servant.  Both were considered by their peers to be very bright and they shared a mutual interest in what would now be termed national security. As the better-known of the two within military circles, Guy was to be the journal’s editor and Cuthbert his assistant.  In understanding the evolution of the journal, we are fortunate that Cuthbert was an almost-compulsive diarist.

Today they might have launched a blog like this one but in 1920 their options were, of course, limited to the print medium.  They therefore approached a publisher, George Clowes, and successfully pitched the idea to him.  Initially, the financial arrangement was that the pair of them would share the editorial remuneration which was the equivalent to £25,000 per annum in modern money.  However, Guy’s business workload meant that by the time the journal was launched in September, he was editor in name only.  The money is important to the story.  Yes, both men had an interest in providing a forum for defence debates, but the underlying truth was that Cuthbert really needed the cash.  He was a parliamentary clerk but keeping up the lifestyle demanded by his social connections was outstripping his modest income.

To our modern eyes it may seem a bit odd that a civil servant would spend his mornings in the offices of a commercial publisher stoking arguments over defence issues before heading to the Palace of Westminster for his day-job. The situation was eased in 1924 when Cuthbert became an MP.  However, a significant conflict of interest arose when, two years later, he became a junior minister in the Admiralty.  With a sleight of hand that might surprise today’s observer, Cuthbert simply declared his brother as the journal’s assistant editor and recipient of the salary while continuing to do much of the work himself.  This perhaps also says something about ministerial workloads in the 1920s?

Although initially optimistic about the venture, Cuthbert’s relationship with the Army Quarterly became something of a love-hate one.  It gave him kudos within defence circles and the editorials allowed him to hold forth on issues that vexed him.  But he quickly tired of the work, especially the four-times-a-year deadlines.  His History degree seems to have given him high literary expectations, so Cuthbert was also irritated consistently by what he perceived as poor-quality writing by the journal’s contributors.  When they were serving or recently retired senior officers this presented him with an editorial dilemma as to how far he should intervene or even reject.  Unsurprisingly, junior officers got shorter shrift.

Overall, the Army Quarterly can be judged as moderately successful in that it established itself as a forum within which army issues could be debated.  That said, the subscriptions were never enough for it to turn a consistent profit and Cuthbert eventually had to take a salary cut to keep the thing afloat.  Over time the journal also came to be seen as semi-official – in part due to Cuthbert’s conscious efforts to forge closer links with the War Office.  These failed in their aim of attracting a financial subsidy, but at least improve circulation within officer’s messes. Army Quaterly also became seen as ‘official’ in other ways – providing lists of senior officer appointments and also hosted the army’s annual Bertrand Stewart essay competition.  With regard to the latter, Cuthbert did not relish the judging process.  For example, in 1923 he wrote:

‘The thought of plodding through the essays fills me with a feeling of despair.  They will be intolerably dull!’

The journal’s proximity to the army sometimes caused embarrassment in official circles when foreign governments took exception to its content.

This relationship between the army’s hierarchy and Cuthbert-the-editor was a curious one.  His frequenting of London clubs and wartime service on the staff, especially at General Headquarters, provided him with contacts which in the 1920s gave him access to key individuals and departments within the War Office.  But by the 1930s, although some like John Dill went on to become senior leaders, his network had mostly retired.  This lack of currency was further exacerbated by Cuthbert’s departure from the Yeomanry in 1926, having never fully embraced his regiment’s re-roling as an artillery unit.

More fruitful in the long-term was Cuthbert’s cultivation of James Edmonds, the official historian of military operations in the First World War.  On several occasions when he was struggling for articles or a book reviewer, Cuthbert was able to rely upon Edmonds’ contributions. In return, the official historian got an early outlet for small parcels of material and the opportunity to engage anonymously in arguments over the British army’s performance during the war. There are perhaps parallels here with the anonymous defence bloggers today?

Eventually, it ended in tears.  Across the 1930s Cuthbert became increasingly less interested in military affairs and sought to prioritise a political career that promised but never quite took off.  As at the start, he stuck with the Army Quarterly because he needed the money. The crisis came in the early part of the Second World War.  The journal found itself associated with a conservative, Colonel Blimp mentality that had, in the eyes of its critics, infected the British army.  Cuthbert hung on, but in 1941 he was sacked and replaced by a former commandant of the Staff College – Maj Gen R.J. Collins.  The Army Quarterly thus moved into a second phase that awaits its chronicler.

 

Further reading:

Stuart Ball (ed.) Parliament and Politics in the Age of Baldwin and MacDonald: The Headlam Diaries, 1923-1935 (1992).

Jim Beach (ed.), The Military Papers of Lieutenant-Colonel Cuthbert Headlam, 1910-1942 (2010).

Image: Headlam in 1927 via wikimedia commons. 

Leave a Reply

Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in:

Gravatar
WordPress.com Logo

You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Google photo

You are commenting using your Google account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Twitter picture

You are commenting using your Twitter account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Facebook photo

You are commenting using your Facebook account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Cancel

Connecting to %s

%d bloggers like this:
#####EOF##### 1916 – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: 1916

The Battle of the Somme and German ‘Battle Management’

DR. ROBERT T. FOLEY On 1 July 1916, the infantry of British 4th Army and the French 6th Army launched what their strategic leadership hoped would be the beginning stages of a decisive campaign against the German army in northeastern France. Initially, the German strategic leadership welcomed the start of the Anglo-French  offensive on the… Read More The Battle of the Somme and German ‘Battle Management’

Robert T. Foley3 Comments

Strategy, Operations and Perception: The Coastal Bombardments of 1916

DR DAVID MORGAN-OWEN At shortly after 4am on the morning of April 25th 1916 the residents of Lowestoft were awakened by the thunder of naval gunfire. Heavy caliber shells began to crash into the town in a whirlwind bombardment which lasted around ten minutes. Half an hour later, for the second time in the War, the… Read More Strategy, Operations and Perception: The Coastal Bombardments of 1916

davidmorganowenLeave a comment

The Battle of Verdun and German Offensive Tactics in 1916

This is the third of three posts covering German planning for Operation Gericht, their offensive at Verdun. This month marks the 100th anniversary of the beginning of this battle, which would last, including French counter-offensives, until the end of 1916. Although it is not as well remembered in Britain today, the ‘hell of Verdun’ left… Read More The Battle of Verdun and German Offensive Tactics in 1916

Robert T. Foley5 Comments

The Battle of Verdun and German Operational Art in 1916

This is the second of three posts covering German planning for Operation Gericht, their offensive at Verdun. This month marks the 100th anniversary of the beginning of this battle, which would last, including French counter-offensives, until the end of 1916. Although it is not as well remembered in Britain today, the ‘hell of Verdun’ left… Read More The Battle of Verdun and German Operational Art in 1916

Robert T. Foley2 Comments

The Battle of Verdun and German Strategy in 1916

This is the first of three posts covering German planning for Operation Gericht, their offensive at Verdun. This month marks the 100th anniversary of the beginning of this battle, which would last, including French counter-offensives, until the end of 1916. Although it is not as well remembered in Britain today, the ‘hell of Verdun’ left… Read More The Battle of Verdun and German Strategy in 1916

Robert T. Foley7 Comments
#####EOF##### Discussing Defence: Cuthbert Headlam and the Army Quarterly – Defence-In-Depth

Discussing Defence: Cuthbert Headlam and the Army Quarterly

JIM BEACH

Dr Jim Beach of the University of Northampton explains the birth and early years of an important forum for interwar military debate. Jim has edited the military papers of Lieutenant Colonel Cuthbert Headlam for the Army Records Society.

On 24 February ninety-nine years ago, two former British army officers sat down and discussed the creation of a new journal of military affairs.  Guy Dawnay and Cuthbert Headlam were old friends from their university days in Oxford.  In 1918 Guy had been the major-general responsible for doctrine writing at GHQ in France while Cuthbert had been a lieutenant-colonel and author of the British Expeditionary Force’s main doctrine manuals.  Both in their early forties, they were an odd couple.  Guy an outgoing Guards officer and businessman; Cuthbert a more reserved Yeomanry officer and civil servant.  Both were considered by their peers to be very bright and they shared a mutual interest in what would now be termed national security. As the better-known of the two within military circles, Guy was to be the journal’s editor and Cuthbert his assistant.  In understanding the evolution of the journal, we are fortunate that Cuthbert was an almost-compulsive diarist.

Today they might have launched a blog like this one but in 1920 their options were, of course, limited to the print medium.  They therefore approached a publisher, George Clowes, and successfully pitched the idea to him.  Initially, the financial arrangement was that the pair of them would share the editorial remuneration which was the equivalent to £25,000 per annum in modern money.  However, Guy’s business workload meant that by the time the journal was launched in September, he was editor in name only.  The money is important to the story.  Yes, both men had an interest in providing a forum for defence debates, but the underlying truth was that Cuthbert really needed the cash.  He was a parliamentary clerk but keeping up the lifestyle demanded by his social connections was outstripping his modest income.

To our modern eyes it may seem a bit odd that a civil servant would spend his mornings in the offices of a commercial publisher stoking arguments over defence issues before heading to the Palace of Westminster for his day-job. The situation was eased in 1924 when Cuthbert became an MP.  However, a significant conflict of interest arose when, two years later, he became a junior minister in the Admiralty.  With a sleight of hand that might surprise today’s observer, Cuthbert simply declared his brother as the journal’s assistant editor and recipient of the salary while continuing to do much of the work himself.  This perhaps also says something about ministerial workloads in the 1920s?

Although initially optimistic about the venture, Cuthbert’s relationship with the Army Quarterly became something of a love-hate one.  It gave him kudos within defence circles and the editorials allowed him to hold forth on issues that vexed him.  But he quickly tired of the work, especially the four-times-a-year deadlines.  His History degree seems to have given him high literary expectations, so Cuthbert was also irritated consistently by what he perceived as poor-quality writing by the journal’s contributors.  When they were serving or recently retired senior officers this presented him with an editorial dilemma as to how far he should intervene or even reject.  Unsurprisingly, junior officers got shorter shrift.

Overall, the Army Quarterly can be judged as moderately successful in that it established itself as a forum within which army issues could be debated.  That said, the subscriptions were never enough for it to turn a consistent profit and Cuthbert eventually had to take a salary cut to keep the thing afloat.  Over time the journal also came to be seen as semi-official – in part due to Cuthbert’s conscious efforts to forge closer links with the War Office.  These failed in their aim of attracting a financial subsidy, but at least improve circulation within officer’s messes. Army Quaterly also became seen as ‘official’ in other ways – providing lists of senior officer appointments and also hosted the army’s annual Bertrand Stewart essay competition.  With regard to the latter, Cuthbert did not relish the judging process.  For example, in 1923 he wrote:

‘The thought of plodding through the essays fills me with a feeling of despair.  They will be intolerably dull!’

The journal’s proximity to the army sometimes caused embarrassment in official circles when foreign governments took exception to its content.

This relationship between the army’s hierarchy and Cuthbert-the-editor was a curious one.  His frequenting of London clubs and wartime service on the staff, especially at General Headquarters, provided him with contacts which in the 1920s gave him access to key individuals and departments within the War Office.  But by the 1930s, although some like John Dill went on to become senior leaders, his network had mostly retired.  This lack of currency was further exacerbated by Cuthbert’s departure from the Yeomanry in 1926, having never fully embraced his regiment’s re-roling as an artillery unit.

More fruitful in the long-term was Cuthbert’s cultivation of James Edmonds, the official historian of military operations in the First World War.  On several occasions when he was struggling for articles or a book reviewer, Cuthbert was able to rely upon Edmonds’ contributions. In return, the official historian got an early outlet for small parcels of material and the opportunity to engage anonymously in arguments over the British army’s performance during the war. There are perhaps parallels here with the anonymous defence bloggers today?

Eventually, it ended in tears.  Across the 1930s Cuthbert became increasingly less interested in military affairs and sought to prioritise a political career that promised but never quite took off.  As at the start, he stuck with the Army Quarterly because he needed the money. The crisis came in the early part of the Second World War.  The journal found itself associated with a conservative, Colonel Blimp mentality that had, in the eyes of its critics, infected the British army.  Cuthbert hung on, but in 1941 he was sacked and replaced by a former commandant of the Staff College – Maj Gen R.J. Collins.  The Army Quarterly thus moved into a second phase that awaits its chronicler.

 

Further reading:

Stuart Ball (ed.) Parliament and Politics in the Age of Baldwin and MacDonald: The Headlam Diaries, 1923-1935 (1992).

Jim Beach (ed.), The Military Papers of Lieutenant-Colonel Cuthbert Headlam, 1910-1942 (2010).

Image: Headlam in 1927 via wikimedia commons. 

Leave a Reply

Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in:

Gravatar
WordPress.com Logo

You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Google photo

You are commenting using your Google account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Twitter picture

You are commenting using your Twitter account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Facebook photo

You are commenting using your Facebook account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Cancel

Connecting to %s

%d bloggers like this:
#####EOF##### February 2019 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: February 2019

The Necessary Death of the One-size-fits-all Approach: Transformative Pedagogy in Higher Military Education

EMILIE CLERET Emilie Alice Cléret is Head of the English Department within the Enseignement militaire supérieur – the French Higher Military Education. She designs the English courses for the Ecole de guerre– the French War College – and for the Centre des hautes etudes militaires– the higher command and staff course. You can read more… Read More The Necessary Death of the One-size-fits-all Approach: Transformative Pedagogy in Higher Military Education

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Discussing Defence: Cuthbert Headlam and the Army Quarterly

JIM BEACH Dr Jim Beach of the University of Northampton explains the birth and early years of an important forum for interwar military debate. Jim has edited the military papers of Lieutenant Colonel Cuthbert Headlam for the Army Records Society. On 24 February ninety-nine years ago, two former British army officers sat down and discussed… Read More Discussing Defence: Cuthbert Headlam and the Army Quarterly

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Use Responsibly: Twitter and the Ideas Network

HEBER ACKLAND Commodore Ackland is a Royal Navy Officer and UK Defence Academy staff member, you can follow him on Twitter at @HeberAckland. Recently I was scrolling through the online version of the Washington Post when I was drawn to a striking headline describing twitter as the crystal meth of the newsrooms, ‘a drug [sic:… Read More Use Responsibly: Twitter and the Ideas Network

defenceresearch2 Comments

‘Your Boy’s Future’ – Apprentice Training and Social Mobility in the Early Royal Air Force

SOPHY GARDNER Sophy Gardner is a PhD student at the University of Exeter, and a former RAF Wing Commander of twenty-years experience. You can follow her on Twitter @sophygardner In many ways, the newly created RAF’s approach to the resource and recruitment challenges of the early inter-war period was highly modern, presaging later educational reforms such… Read More ‘Your Boy’s Future’ – Apprentice Training and Social Mobility in the Early Royal Air Force

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Professional Military Education in the United Kingdom: An Asset Ignored

ROD THORNTON In sharp contrast to the emphasis apparent within the defence establishments of some of its closest allies and partners, the United Kingdom’s Ministry of Defence (MoD) seems to be ignoring the value of professional military education (PME). There is no mention at all of the role of PME in the two most recent… Read More Professional Military Education in the United Kingdom: An Asset Ignored

defenceresearch2 Comments

Conference Observations: Reimagining the Future of Professional Military Education

Dr ROBERT T. FOLEY Over the past year, there have been some very insightful and provocative contributions to the debate about professional military education, with War on the Rocks providing an important platform for this debate. Driven by perceived changes to the functioning of the international system and by notional challenges posed by emerging technologies, armed… Read More Conference Observations: Reimagining the Future of Professional Military Education

Robert T. FoleyLeave a comment
#####EOF##### November 2017 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: November 2017

The Role of Neutrality in the Pacific Theatre of the Second World War

Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Defence in Depth has been crossposting some of the proceedings of the conference, of which you can find more here. PASCA LOTTAZ Pascal Lottaz… Read More The Role of Neutrality in the Pacific Theatre of the Second World War

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Transatlantic Burden-Sharing: Origins and Strategic Implications

JORDAN BECKER is a U.S. Army officer and a member of NATO’s International Military Staff. His work here represents his own views and not those of the U.S. government or NATO. “Burden-sharing” has been an issue for NATO since its birth. Allies have continually found it challenging to deter adversaries without inviting free-riding, and the… Read More Transatlantic Burden-Sharing: Origins and Strategic Implications

benkienzleLeave a comment

Commemorating the centenary of the First World War: launch of a War and Society special edition

DR HELEN MCCARTNEY Centenaries can be moments of reflection for states and their people.  They provide an opportunity to re-consider existing narratives about past events and confirm or repurpose their meaning to inform individual and collective identities as well as important political and social relationships.  This premise was the starting point for a symposium organized… Read More Commemorating the centenary of the First World War: launch of a War and Society special edition

defenceresearch1 Comment

Remembering 1917? The centenary of the Russian Revolution

DR TRACEY GERMAN November 7th 2017 marks 100 years since the Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd (St Petersburg), ushering in nearly 75 years of communist rule, the establishment of the world’s first communist state and ultimately, the creation of the USSR in 1922. The October Revolution was the second revolution the country had experienced in… Read More Remembering 1917? The centenary of the Russian Revolution

benkienzleLeave a comment
#####EOF##### March 2016 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: March 2016

Power and Plenty in US-China Strategic Competition

BY DR HUGO MEIJER NB: This is a short summary of Trading with the Enemy: the Making of US Export Control Policy toward the People’s Republic of China, Oxford University Press (February 2016, available here). In the twenty-first century, the US-China relationship is characterized by a mixture of economic interdependence and rivalry in the military realm.… Read More Power and Plenty in US-China Strategic Competition

defenceresearch1 Comment

Three Questions for Indian Nuclear Policy

BY DR FRANK O’DONNELL India’s nuclear forces are growing in diversity and technical capability. Unprecedented new nuclear posture options are being placed in the hands of Indian defence planners. India today stands ready to field the first of an indigenous fleet of nuclear-armed submarines; ICBM-range ballistic missiles; and a new generation of short-range ballistic missiles.… Read More Three Questions for Indian Nuclear Policy

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Urban Operations in the Future Operating Environment

By DR SIMON MOODY Underpinning DCDC’s Global Strategic Trends – Out to 2045 is the idea that the future operating environment will be Congested, Cluttered, Contested, Connected, and Constrained (the so-called Five C’s). Implicit in this assumption is that military forces will be increasingly called upon to fight in the urban domain. Indeed, global trends… Read More Urban Operations in the Future Operating Environment

defenceresearch2 Comments

LITTLE GREEN MEN AND RED ARMIES: WHY RUSSIAN ‘HYBRID WAR’ IS NOT NEW

DR GERAINT HUGHES Ever since the annexation of Crimea in February-March 2014, and the conflict in Eastern Ukraine, military analysts have debated the nature of ‘hybrid war’ – or ‘non-linear’/’ambiguous warfare’ – and whether it represents the military strategy of choice for Vladimir Putin’s Russia. The Polish, Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian militaries in particular are using Ukrainian-style… Read More LITTLE GREEN MEN AND RED ARMIES: WHY RUSSIAN ‘HYBRID WAR’ IS NOT NEW

defenceresearch8 Comments
#####EOF##### UK – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: UK

NATO’s deterrence moves in the Baltic States: falling into Russia’s trap?

Dr Rod Thornton NATO has decided to increase the number of troops it has operating (technically, either training or exercising) in the Baltic States. Included  in this contingent will be no less than four British tanks. The stated reason for this deployment is to ‘deter’ Russian aggression against Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. All well and… Read More NATO’s deterrence moves in the Baltic States: falling into Russia’s trap?

defenceresearch1 Comment

Why Islamic State is wrong: Sykes-Picot is not responsible for controversial borders in the Middle East – but the British military is (Part 1)

This is Part One of a two part series on Sykes-Picot and the controversial borders of the Middle East. Dr Rod Thornton The Sykes-Picot Agreement, reached during the First World War by Britain and France, has recently been given renewed prominence. This has come about with the claim by Islamic State (IS) that this accord… Read More Why Islamic State is wrong: Sykes-Picot is not responsible for controversial borders in the Middle East – but the British military is (Part 1)

defenceresearchLeave a comment

A Capital Mistake: Evidence and Defence in the Brexit Debates

Professor Matthew Uttley & Dr. Benedict Wilkinson In one of his more exasperated moments, Sherlock Holmes turns to his long-term companion, Dr. Watson and chides him for his impatience, saying ‘It is a capital mistake to theorize before you have all the evidence. It biases the judgment.’ Strong words they may be, but wise ones… Read More A Capital Mistake: Evidence and Defence in the Brexit Debates

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Tale of Two Visits: THE UK’s Outreach to China and India

This post is based on a seminar series talk organised by King’s College London’s Regional Security Research Centre (RSRC), which took place on 24 November 2015. By DR AVINASH PALIWAL As the UK tries to reenergise its economy, manage its diverging interests with the US and the EU, and debate its role in the Middle East (especially the… Read More Tale of Two Visits: THE UK’s Outreach to China and India

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The UK Decision on Syria: The Only Solution Is a Political Solution

DR DAVID B ROBERTS An outline of a modus vivendi with Russia is required if there is to be any progress in the fight against Da’esh. Otherwise, the vaunted 70,000 strong ‘moderate’ forces will continue to be attacked by Russia. Indeed, their bombing campaign to date has been almost exclusively focused on forces other than… Read More The UK Decision on Syria: The Only Solution Is a Political Solution

defenceresearch2 Comments

The UK Decision on Syria: Lions roar, mice squeak – the response of a ‘terrorist sympathiser’

BILL PARK Yesterday’s vote approving the PM’s desire to bandwagon with the UK’s US and French NATO allies in bombing IS targets in Syria will make little difference to the majority of Syrians. The British strikes against oil facilities that came in the immediate wake of the vote might make a small dent in IS’s… Read More The UK Decision on Syria: Lions roar, mice squeak – the response of a ‘terrorist sympathiser’

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The UK Decision on Syria: The View From Russia

DR TRACEY GERMAN The news that the British parliament had sanctioned airstrikes against IS in Syria, and that the first missions had taken place, has been widely reported in Russia. The move is likely to be seen as vindication for Russia’s ongoing operation there: with the French launching airstrikes against Syria at the end of… Read More The UK Decision on Syria: The View From Russia

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Act of Killing

DR CHRIS TUCK Previous Defence-in-Depth blogs have covered ‘forgotten battles’: this blog addresses the consequences of a forgotten war: the undeclared war fought between Britain and Indonesia from 1963-66, termed by the Indonesians Konfrontasi (Confrontation). Small wars often have large consequences, even if those consequences do not always impinge on western consciousness. In Jakarta, fifty… Read More The Act of Killing

amirmkamel1 Comment
#####EOF##### Andrew Dorman – Defence-In-Depth

Category: Andrew Dorman

2018 – will the year of the Royal Air Force be any better than 2017 was for the Royal Navy?

PROF ANDREW DORMAN, PROF MATTHEW UTTLEY, MS ARMIDA VAN RIJ, & DR BENEDICT WILKINSON If 2017 was the ‘Year of the Royal Navy (RN)’ then presumably 2018 is the de facto year of the Royal Air Force (RAF) as it celebrates 100 years since its formation on 1st April 1918. For the RN, 2017 proved more… Read More 2018 – will the year of the Royal Air Force be any better than 2017 was for the Royal Navy?

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Amphibiosity, the Royal Marines and the Defence Debate in the UK

PROF ANDREW DORMAN, PROF MATTHEW UTTLEY, MS ARMIDA VAN RIJ The House of Commons Defence Committee (HCDC) has recently released a report emotively entitled ‘Sunset for the Royal Marines?’ The report followed on from the HCDC’s rapid inquiry into the future of the UK’s amphibious capability in the wake of a series of press reports… Read More Amphibiosity, the Royal Marines and the Defence Debate in the UK

defenceresearch3 Comments

The Defence Review and the Military High Command: Do changes in personnel numbers suggest that the armed forces are capable of modernising themselves?

PROF ANDREW DORMAN*, PROF MATTHEW UTTLEY, & DR BENEDICT WILKINSON In December 2017, General Sir Nicholas Carter, Chief of the General Staff (CGS) exchanged ‘Letters to the Editor’ in The Times with Frank Ledwidge, one of our King’s Department of War Studies colleagues.[1] At issue was the size of the senior officer corps compared to… Read More The Defence Review and the Military High Command: Do changes in personnel numbers suggest that the armed forces are capable of modernising themselves?

defenceresearch3 Comments

2017 – the Year of the Royal Navy: time to get real?

Professor Andrew M Dorman and Professor Matthew R H Uttley Centre for British Defence and Security Studies As we entered 2017 the Ministry of Defence earmarked 2017 as the ‘year of the Royal Navy (RN)’. In the press release that accompanied the announcement key milestones for 2017 were highlighted, including the new aircraft carrier HMS… Read More 2017 – the Year of the Royal Navy: time to get real?

defenceresearch5 Comments
#####EOF##### January 2016 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: January 2016

Fraudulent Cases of PTSD: It’s Not Just About the Fraud

By DR ALISON HAWKS A recent Guardian article with the headline “Many military veterans’ PTSD claims ‘fabricated or exaggerated’” argued that fraudulent claims of PTSD take away valuable resources from those that genuinely do suffer. Professor Edgar Jones, of King’s College London, explained the problem: ‘‘The pressing issue of ‘stolen trauma’, that is the elaboration… Read More Fraudulent Cases of PTSD: It’s Not Just About the Fraud

defenceresearch1 Comment

In with the Old: Russia’s New National Security Strategy

DR TRACEY GERMAN On December 31st 2015, while most of the world was focused on plans to welcome in the new year, Russian President Vladimir Putin unveiled an updated National Security Strategy (NSS). While it builds on some long-running themes in Russia’s foreign and security policy, it also makes it clear that Moscow has a… Read More In with the Old: Russia’s New National Security Strategy

defenceresearch2 Comments

Back to the Future? British Air Power and Two Defence Reviews 2010-15

Dr David Jordan When the Prime Minister sat down in the House of Commons after concluding his presentation of the 2015 SDSR, he may have allowed himself a smile of satisfaction at the largely positive response it received, and not just from his own back-benchers. This may have become a grin by the time the… Read More Back to the Future? British Air Power and Two Defence Reviews 2010-15

defenceresearch4 Comments

Saudi Arabia and its anti-terror alliance

DR DAVID ROBERTS On 14 December 2015, Saudi Arabia’s Deputy Crown Prince and Defence Minister, Mohammed bin Salman al-Saud, called a press conference and announced the formation of a new thirty-four nation-strong Islamic military alliance that would be dedicated to countering the threat of terrorism around the wider Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region.… Read More Saudi Arabia and its anti-terror alliance

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…The US: heading into election year

After a turbulent 2015, members of DSD’s Regional Security Research Centre (@KingsRegSec) look forward to the coming year and examine the issues that they believe will be prominent in 2016, including the US presidential elections, continuing instability across the Middle East and the various coalitions seeking to counter IS, talks between India and Pakistan on… Read More Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…The US: heading into election year

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…Europe: UK heading for the exit?

After a turbulent 2015, members of DSD’s Regional Security Research Centre (@KingsRegSec) look forward to the coming year and examine the issues that they believe will be prominent in 2016, including the US presidential elections, continuing instability across the Middle East and the various coalitions seeking to counter IS, talks between India and Pakistan on… Read More Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…Europe: UK heading for the exit?

defenceresearch2 Comments

Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…Deadly rivalries in Syria, Iraq and Turkey

After a turbulent 2015, members of DSD’s Regional Security Research Centre (@KingsRegSec) look forward to the coming year and examine the issues that they believe will be prominent in 2016, including the US presidential elections, continuing instability across the Middle East and the various coalitions seeking to counter IS, talks between India and Pakistan on… Read More Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…Deadly rivalries in Syria, Iraq and Turkey

defenceresearch1 Comment

Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…Russia: coming in from the cold?

After a turbulent 2015, members of DSD’s Regional Security Research Centre (@KingsRegSec) look forward to the coming year and examine the issues that they believe will be prominent in 2016, including the US presidential elections, continuing instability across the Middle East and the various coalitions seeking to counter IS, talks between India and Pakistan on… Read More Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…Russia: coming in from the cold?

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Air power – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Air power

2018 – will the year of the Royal Air Force be any better than 2017 was for the Royal Navy?

PROF ANDREW DORMAN, PROF MATTHEW UTTLEY, MS ARMIDA VAN RIJ, & DR BENEDICT WILKINSON If 2017 was the ‘Year of the Royal Navy (RN)’ then presumably 2018 is the de facto year of the Royal Air Force (RAF) as it celebrates 100 years since its formation on 1st April 1918. For the RN, 2017 proved more… Read More 2018 – will the year of the Royal Air Force be any better than 2017 was for the Royal Navy?

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Defence Review and the Military High Command: Do changes in personnel numbers suggest that the armed forces are capable of modernising themselves?

PROF ANDREW DORMAN*, PROF MATTHEW UTTLEY, & DR BENEDICT WILKINSON In December 2017, General Sir Nicholas Carter, Chief of the General Staff (CGS) exchanged ‘Letters to the Editor’ in The Times with Frank Ledwidge, one of our King’s Department of War Studies colleagues.[1] At issue was the size of the senior officer corps compared to… Read More The Defence Review and the Military High Command: Do changes in personnel numbers suggest that the armed forces are capable of modernising themselves?

defenceresearch3 Comments

Amphetamines and the Second World War: Stimulating Interest in Drugs and Warfare

This is one in a series of occasional posts from scholars outside of the Defence Studies Department. If you would be interested to contribute to this series please contact the editors: Dr Ben Kienzle and Dr David Morgan-Owen.  DR JAMES PUGH James Pugh is a Lecturer in Modern History at the University of Birmingham, UK. His… Read More Amphetamines and the Second World War: Stimulating Interest in Drugs and Warfare

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Battle of the Somme: The First Proving Ground for British Air Power?

By Dr David Jordan 100 years after the conclusion of the Battle of the Somme, there is still a tendency – a quite understandable one – within the wider public discourse on the First World War to concentrate upon the first day of the Battle, on 1 July 1916 because of its appalling casualties, and… Read More The Battle of the Somme: The First Proving Ground for British Air Power?

amirmkamel1 Comment

Degrade and Destroy: Winning the War against DAESH

Dr. Andrew R. Hom In late June 2016 the ESRC-funded Moral Victories project and KCL’s Department of Defence Studies convened a workshop, entitled ‘Degrade and Destroy: Winning the War against Daesh?‘, which brought together leading experts from the academic, military, policy, and NGO communities to consider the problem of confronting DAESH (ISIS) – both in terms… Read More Degrade and Destroy: Winning the War against DAESH

defenceresearch2 Comments

Keeping the Genie in the Bottle: RNAS Anti-Submarine Warfare, 1912-1916

ALEXANDER HOWLETT Throughout its long history, the Royal Navy has been both an innovator of, and adapter to, technological change. By the end of the 19th century, the sailing warship of Nelson’s day had been transformed into the all steel construction, reciprocating engine, electric powered and radio equipped, battleship. As formidable an implement of sea… Read More Keeping the Genie in the Bottle: RNAS Anti-Submarine Warfare, 1912-1916

defenceresearch2 Comments

Air Power: Strength and Weaknesses

This is the first in a series of occasional posts from scholars outside of the Defence Studies Department. If you would be interested to contribute to this series please contact the editors: Dr Amir Kamel and Dr David Morgan-Owen.  Prof. Jeremy Black Jeremy Black studied at studied at Queens’ College Cambridge, St John’s College Oxford, and Merton… Read More Air Power: Strength and Weaknesses

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Back to the Future? British Air Power and Two Defence Reviews 2010-15

Dr David Jordan When the Prime Minister sat down in the House of Commons after concluding his presentation of the 2015 SDSR, he may have allowed himself a smile of satisfaction at the largely positive response it received, and not just from his own back-benchers. This may have become a grin by the time the… Read More Back to the Future? British Air Power and Two Defence Reviews 2010-15

defenceresearch4 Comments
#####EOF##### August 2017 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: August 2017

When Britain meets Free France: Coalition Warfare in French Equatorial Africa, January to August 1941

  Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Over the coming weeks, we will be posting entries written by some of the conference’s presenters. DR JULIE VALADE Dr Julie Valade is… Read More When Britain meets Free France: Coalition Warfare in French Equatorial Africa, January to August 1941

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The French Recruitment of Colonial Soldiers in Morocco after the German Occupation of Paris during the Second World War

Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Over the coming weeks, we will be posting entries written by some of the conference’s presenters.  Otman Bychou Otman Bychou is a teacher of… Read More The French Recruitment of Colonial Soldiers in Morocco after the German Occupation of Paris during the Second World War

defenceresearch1 Comment

What to read on Brexit, security & defence

DR BEN KIENZLE Each summer, members of the Defence Studies Department at King’s College London offer literature suggestions for the following academic year. Given the UK’s game-changing decision to leave the European Union (EU), this year’s first ‘summer reading’ post takes on the nearly impossible task of suggesting three key readings on the security &… Read More What to read on Brexit, security & defence

benkienzleLeave a comment

Despatch from Korea: reflections on this Summer’s crisis

DR MIKE FINCH Donald Trump’s war of words with Kim Jong-Un’s North Korea has dominated the international news cycle for the last several weeks. Yet here in South Korea if you didn’t turn on the news channels, you wouldn’t know it. There is no public panic. There are no obvious signs of intensified military activity.… Read More Despatch from Korea: reflections on this Summer’s crisis

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Amphetamines and the Second World War: Stimulating Interest in Drugs and Warfare

This is one in a series of occasional posts from scholars outside of the Defence Studies Department. If you would be interested to contribute to this series please contact the editors: Dr Ben Kienzle and Dr David Morgan-Owen.  DR JAMES PUGH James Pugh is a Lecturer in Modern History at the University of Birmingham, UK. His… Read More Amphetamines and the Second World War: Stimulating Interest in Drugs and Warfare

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Conference Report – When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective

You can learn more about the Second World War Research Group on their website and by following them on Twitter (@SWWresearch). DR RICHARD HAMMOND Since its formation in 2014, the Second World War Research Group has grown exponentially in terms of its membership, brand and executive.  From a humble beginning under two Co-Directors and a membership numbering… Read More Conference Report – When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective

defenceresearch7 Comments
#####EOF##### July 2017 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: July 2017

Today’s Russian Navy taking the asymmetric route – with caveats

DR ROD THORNTON On the day that the UK’s new aircraft carrier, HMS Queen Elizabeth, put to sea for the first time in June, Defence Secretary Sir Michael Fallon compared it to what he called the ‘old and dilapidated’ Russian carrier, the Admiral Kuznetsov – seen recently operating off Syria. A Russian Defence Ministry spokesman… Read More Today’s Russian Navy taking the asymmetric route – with caveats

defenceresearch4 Comments

Conference Report: Two Day Conference in War and Peace Studies, School of History, University of Leeds, 15-16 June

DR VANDA WILCOX Vanda Wilcox completed a DPhil at the University of Oxford in 2006 before moving to Rome, where she now teaches at John Cabot University. She has published on Italian military leadership, training and battlefield performance as well as the popular experience and memory of the First World War in Italy. A member… Read More Conference Report: Two Day Conference in War and Peace Studies, School of History, University of Leeds, 15-16 June

defenceresearchLeave a comment

What Drives the Middlemen? Exploring Involvement in WMD-related Illicit Trade

Dr Daniel Salisbury is a Postdoctoral Fellow at the James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies in Monterey, California. He completed his PhD at the King’s College London Department of War Studies in 2016. This blogpost draws on research which will be published in the Nonproliferation Review later in the year. As North Korea demonstrated by… Read More What Drives the Middlemen? Exploring Involvement in WMD-related Illicit Trade

benkienzleLeave a comment

No news is good news? The field of security & defence one year after the Brexit referendum

DR BEN KIENZLE On 23 June 2016, the British people voted to leave the European Union (EU). This has been widely seen as one of the most important strategic decisions of the UK in a generation. In the immediate aftermath of the EU referendum, Ellen Hallams and Ben Kienzle have brought together researchers from King’s… Read More No news is good news? The field of security & defence one year after the Brexit referendum

benkienzleLeave a comment

Ukraine’s Military Reform and the Conflict in the East

DR DEBORAH SANDERS One of the key challenges of military reform for any military organisation is the question ‘are we preparing for the right war?’ In my article ‘”The War We Want; The War That We Get”: Ukraine’s Military Reform and the Conflict in the East’, I examine this issue in the context of Ukrainian… Read More Ukraine’s Military Reform and the Conflict in the East

benkienzleLeave a comment

THE RETURN OF GORSHKOV AND THE NEW COLD WAR AT SEA

KEVIN ROWLANDS Commander Kevin Rowlands is a naval officer who was awarded a PhD in 2015 through the Defence Studies Department.  He is the editor of 21st Century Gorshkov, recently published by the US Naval Institute Press.  In the following post he argues the origins of Russia’s current maritime strategy can be traced to the… Read More THE RETURN OF GORSHKOV AND THE NEW COLD WAR AT SEA

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Regional Security – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Regional Security

What to read on Brexit, security & defence

DR BEN KIENZLE Each summer, members of the Defence Studies Department at King’s College London offer literature suggestions for the following academic year. Given the UK’s game-changing decision to leave the European Union (EU), this year’s first ‘summer reading’ post takes on the nearly impossible task of suggesting three key readings on the security &… Read More What to read on Brexit, security & defence

benkienzleLeave a comment

No news is good news? The field of security & defence one year after the Brexit referendum

DR BEN KIENZLE On 23 June 2016, the British people voted to leave the European Union (EU). This has been widely seen as one of the most important strategic decisions of the UK in a generation. In the immediate aftermath of the EU referendum, Ellen Hallams and Ben Kienzle have brought together researchers from King’s… Read More No news is good news? The field of security & defence one year after the Brexit referendum

benkienzleLeave a comment

European Strategic Autonomy after the Brexit

PROF SVEN BISCOP Prof. Biscop is the Director of the Europe in the World Programme at the Egmont – Royal Institute for International Relations in Brussels, and a Professor at Ghent University. He is an Honorary Fellow of the European Security and Defence College. The EU Global Strategy for Foreign and Security Policy (EUGS) is one… Read More European Strategic Autonomy after the Brexit

defenceresearch1 Comment

Testing times for Uzbekistan

DR TRACEY GERMAN The death of Uzbek President Islam Karimov, the longest serving ruler in the post-Soviet space, has triggered concern about the stability of the Central Asian country. In power since 1989, Karimov’s authoritarian rule has undoubtedly contributed to relative stability, whilst also hindering the development of a robust economy and functioning civil society.… Read More Testing times for Uzbekistan

defenceresearchLeave a comment

NATO’s Warsaw Summit and Russia: deterrence or provocation?

DR TRACEY GERMAN The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) Summit in Warsaw, which took place 8-9 July 2016, focused on the continuing threat to Euro-Atlantic security from Russia, leading to an emphasis on deterrence and a strengthening of the alliance’s defence posture, moving away from its previous posture of reassurance. The summit’s final communiqué was… Read More NATO’s Warsaw Summit and Russia: deterrence or provocation?

defenceresearch1 Comment

Turkey: It’s the lust for power, stupid

BILL PARK Turkey’s president Recep Tayyip Erdogan is illiberal and autocratic. He has little respect for the rule of law or the autonomy of institutions. He was content to allow lawyers and police officials who were alleged supporters of the cleric Fethullah Gulen to pursue, beginning in 2008, and eventually imprison military and other so-called… Read More Turkey: It’s the lust for power, stupid

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Interesting times for the Gulf Arab monarchies

By DR DAVID B ROBERTS With its double meaning, the Chinese proverb ‘may you live in interesting times’ aptly describes the current mood in the Arab Gulf monarchies. These states (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates) are going through a period of intriguing flux. A range of long-held assumptions across… Read More Interesting times for the Gulf Arab monarchies

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### August 2016 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: August 2016

DSD Summer Reading #3

In this series members of the Defence Studies Department share the books they are reading this summer. Click here for part I and part II.  Dr Avinash Paliwal Vinay Sitapati, Half Lion: How P V Narasimha Rao Transformed India (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2016) This political biography of India’s largely discredited, but immensely transformational prime minister, P V Narasimha Rao,… Read More DSD Summer Reading #3

defenceresearchLeave a comment

General Sir John Hackett’s The Third World War: Or, How to Think about a Future War with Russia Today

DR JEFF MICHAELS In the vast majority of cases, scenarios of future war have rarely come to pass as originally envisioned. At least two inter-related reasons can account for this. First, due to the incredibly large number of variables to consider – geopolitical, technical, human, etc. – it is simply impossible to calculate how they… Read More General Sir John Hackett’s The Third World War: Or, How to Think about a Future War with Russia Today

defenceresearch2 Comments
#####EOF##### Turkey – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Turkey

The Changing Role and Position of Turkish Armed Forces in Turkish Foreign Policy

SELCUK AYDIN The Turkish Armed Forces have been discussed substantially during the last few years in the context of Turkish Foreign Policy due to new developments in the military; such as building a military base in Qatar and Somalia, technological transformation, the S400 strategic defence system deal with Russia, and operations in Iraq and particularly… Read More The Changing Role and Position of Turkish Armed Forces in Turkish Foreign Policy

defenceresearch2 Comments

Erdogan and the National Pact: the fallout today from the British Army’s seizing of Mosul in 1918

By Dr Rod Thornton Turkey’s President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has recently repeated his country’s long-held territorial claim to Mosul and the whole of northern Iraq. Such a claim is based on the belief prevalent in Turkey that this area had, as territory of the Ottoman empire, been illegally seized by the British in November 1918… Read More Erdogan and the National Pact: the fallout today from the British Army’s seizing of Mosul in 1918

defenceresearch1 Comment

Turkey: It’s the lust for power, stupid

BILL PARK Turkey’s president Recep Tayyip Erdogan is illiberal and autocratic. He has little respect for the rule of law or the autonomy of institutions. He was content to allow lawyers and police officials who were alleged supporters of the cleric Fethullah Gulen to pursue, beginning in 2008, and eventually imprison military and other so-called… Read More Turkey: It’s the lust for power, stupid

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Turkey’s “Anti-Modern” Coup Fiasco

DR FRANCESCO MILAN Two decades ago, a Turkish admiral coined the iconic term “post-modern coup” to describe what, to date, remains Turkey’s most recent successful military coup. Back then, in 1997, the military echelons escalated an ongoing political crisis, which culminated at a National Security Council meeting where the generals presented a list of ‘recommendations’… Read More Turkey’s “Anti-Modern” Coup Fiasco

defenceresearch1 Comment

TURKEY’S KURDISH PROBLEM(S), THE KURDS’ TURKISH PROBLEM(S), AND THE CRISES IN THE MIDDLE EAST (Part 2)

BY BILL PARK This is the second of a two-part series on the topic. The first of which was posted week on the Defence-in-Depth blog. Turkey’s transborder Kurdish problem There can be little doubt that both Ankara and Turkey’s Kurdish nationalists have been influenced by developments in Syria. Many of Turkey’s Kurds are inspired by… Read More TURKEY’S KURDISH PROBLEM(S), THE KURDS’ TURKISH PROBLEM(S), AND THE CRISES IN THE MIDDLE EAST (Part 2)

defenceresearchLeave a comment

TURKEY’S KURDISH PROBLEM(S), THE KURDS’ TURKISH PROBLEM(S), AND THE CRISES IN THE MIDDLE EAST (PART 1)

BY BILL PARK This is the first of a two-part series on the topic. The second of which will be posted next week on the Defence-in-Depth blog. Turkey’s very own Kurdish problem Turkey’s AKP government’s attempts to seek a resolution to the country’s domestic Kurdish problem had by the second half of 2015 deteriorated into… Read More TURKEY’S KURDISH PROBLEM(S), THE KURDS’ TURKISH PROBLEM(S), AND THE CRISES IN THE MIDDLE EAST (PART 1)

defenceresearch1 Comment

Nagorno-Karabakh clashes threaten stability in the South Caucasus

DR TRACEY GERMAN Violence has erupted in the South Caucasus, with clashes between Armenian and Azerbaijani troops along the Line of Contact around Nagorno-Karabakh resulting in a number of casualties. The military clashes began in the early hours of 2 April, while both the Armenian and Azerbaijani presidents were attending the Nuclear Security Summit in… Read More Nagorno-Karabakh clashes threaten stability in the South Caucasus

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…Deadly rivalries in Syria, Iraq and Turkey

After a turbulent 2015, members of DSD’s Regional Security Research Centre (@KingsRegSec) look forward to the coming year and examine the issues that they believe will be prominent in 2016, including the US presidential elections, continuing instability across the Middle East and the various coalitions seeking to counter IS, talks between India and Pakistan on… Read More Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…Deadly rivalries in Syria, Iraq and Turkey

defenceresearch1 Comment

SECURITISING TURKEY’S NOVEMBER ELECTIONS

DR FRANCESCO MILAN On Sunday November 1st, Turkey will hold the second general election this year. This comes after the ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP) failed to find an agreement with opposing parties to form a coalition government, having previously fallen short of obtaining enough votes to secure its own parliamentary majority in the… Read More SECURITISING TURKEY’S NOVEMBER ELECTIONS

amirmkamel2 Comments
#####EOF##### Defence-In-Depth – Page 2 – Research from the Defence Studies Department, King's College London

Professional Military Education in the United Kingdom: An Asset Ignored

ROD THORNTON In sharp contrast to the emphasis apparent within the defence establishments of some of its closest allies and partners, the United Kingdom’s Ministry of Defence (MoD) seems to be ignoring the value of professional military education (PME). There is no mention at all of the role of PME in the two most recent… Read More Professional Military Education in the United Kingdom: An Asset Ignored

defenceresearch2 Comments

Conference Observations: Reimagining the Future of Professional Military Education

Dr ROBERT T. FOLEY Over the past year, there have been some very insightful and provocative contributions to the debate about professional military education, with War on the Rocks providing an important platform for this debate. Driven by perceived changes to the functioning of the international system and by notional challenges posed by emerging technologies, armed… Read More Conference Observations: Reimagining the Future of Professional Military Education

Robert T. FoleyLeave a comment

Military Learning in the 21st Century

THE EDITORS Military learning is a hot topic. It comes in many different guises: ‘conceptual development’, ‘the intellectual edge’, ‘strategic adaptability’, or ‘innovative by design.’ Yet behind the buzzwords and the dogma, what do we really mean when talk about learning in a military context? And how can we do it more effectively, without sacrificing… Read More Military Learning in the 21st Century

defenceresearch6 Comments

Jan Smuts and the Anglo-American World Order

DR JOHN MITCHAM John is Assistant Professor of History at Duquesne University. He is an historian of the British Empire, with a particular focus on settler colonialism in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. His book, Race and Imperial Defence in the British World 1870-1914 (Cambridge University Press, 2016), examined the cultural links between Britain and… Read More Jan Smuts and the Anglo-American World Order

defenceresearch1 Comment

Games, Strategy, and the Conflict-Cooperation Spectrum

DR DAVID BLAGDEN David is Lecturer in International Security and Strategy at the University of Exeter’s Strategy and Security Institute. This post is intended to summarise and promote themes from his just-published book (co-edited with Mark de Rond), Games: Conflict, Competition, and Cooperation (Cambridge University Press, 2019). You can follow him on Twitter here. Why plug a… Read More Games, Strategy, and the Conflict-Cooperation Spectrum

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Civil Resettlement Units – a lesson from the past

DR CLARE MAKEPEACE Clare is an historian, writer, lecturer and consultant in the cultural history of the First and Second World Wars. Her debut book Captives of War. British Prisoners of War in Europe in the Second World War was published in 2017, and she holds the position of Honorary Research Fellow at Birkbeck, University of London. You can… Read More Civil Resettlement Units – a lesson from the past

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Counterterrorism – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Counterterrorism

‘Counter-Insurgency Against Kith and Kin’: British Army Combat and Cohesion in Northern Ireland

DR EDWARD BURKE Dr Burke is Assistant Professor in International Relations at the University of Nottingham. ‘An Army of Tribes: British Army Cohesion, Deviancy and Murder in Northern Ireland’ is published in paperback by Liverpool University Press, and is available here. Today’s officers in the British Army who served in Northern Ireland during Operation Banner… Read More ‘Counter-Insurgency Against Kith and Kin’: British Army Combat and Cohesion in Northern Ireland

defenceresearch1 Comment

Saudi Arabia and its anti-terror alliance

DR DAVID ROBERTS On 14 December 2015, Saudi Arabia’s Deputy Crown Prince and Defence Minister, Mohammed bin Salman al-Saud, called a press conference and announced the formation of a new thirty-four nation-strong Islamic military alliance that would be dedicated to countering the threat of terrorism around the wider Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region.… Read More Saudi Arabia and its anti-terror alliance

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Political, Religious, and Everyday Allure of Islamic State’s Utopianism

This is the second in a series of posts to come out of the ‘Rise of the Islamic State (IS): Ideology, Strategy, and Implications’ roundtable organized by Regional Security Research Centre on 4 February 2015. Subsequent posts will come out on Wednesdays and will cover topics such as the motivations for joining IS and the… Read More The Political, Religious, and Everyday Allure of Islamic State’s Utopianism

defenceresearch1 Comment
#####EOF##### September 2015 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: September 2015

Thinking about the Present and Future of US Military Power Projection

This is the third in a series of posts from a recent research symposium organised by Dr Ellen Hallams on ‘The Reconfiguration of American Primacy in World Politics: Domestic and International Challenges.’ In this piece, Dr Jeff Michaels explores the role of the military in US foreign policy. DR JEFF MICHAELS One of the great ironies of so much of… Read More Thinking about the Present and Future of US Military Power Projection

defenceresearch1 Comment

German Defence of the Western Front, September-October 1915

by Dr ROBERT T. FOLEY For most in Britain, September 1915 is best remembered for the battle of Loos, which saw the first British use of poison gas and the first extensive use of Kitchener’s ‘new army divisions’ in battle. It is also remembered as a great ‘what-if’ of history, as British successes at Loos… Read More German Defence of the Western Front, September-October 1915

Robert T. Foley5 Comments

US Primacy in World Politics and the Strategic ‘Pivot’ to Asia

This is the second in a series of posts from a recent research symposium organised by Dr Ellen Hallams on ‘The Reconfiguration of American Primacy in World Politics: Domestic and International Challenges.’ In this piece, Dr Hugo Meijer explores the US ‘pivot’ to Asia. DR HUGO MEIJER The Obama administration has launched a series of diplomatic,… Read More US Primacy in World Politics and the Strategic ‘Pivot’ to Asia

davidmorganowen3 Comments

The Royal Flying Corps and Preparing for the Battle of Loos, 1915: Developing an Air Force

by Dr DAVID JORDAN In the introduction to his excellent book on the battle, my colleague Nick Lloyd observed that the battle of Loos remained forgotten, ‘lost in the myths of rumour, hearsay and myth’, even though it was the largest land battle that Britain had fought up until that point, and was marked by… Read More The Royal Flying Corps and Preparing for the Battle of Loos, 1915: Developing an Air Force

defenceresearch2 Comments

US Primacy in the Obama Era: A State of Mind?

This is the first in a series of posts from a recent research symposium organised by Dr Ellen Hallams on ‘The Reconfiguration of American Primacy in World Politics: Domestic and International Challenges.’ In this series, members of the Defence Studies Department who participated in the symposium will examine some of the challenges and issues faced… Read More US Primacy in the Obama Era: A State of Mind?

defenceresearch3 Comments

Operational Art: Pinheads and Angels

The operational level of war and the operational art are key concepts of Western military doctrine and consequently form important areas of study in staff colleges around the world. To stimulate discussion and debate about these important ideas, authors from the Defence Studies Department are exploring the continued utility of these concepts. In this third post,… Read More Operational Art: Pinheads and Angels

defenceresearch1 Comment

Operational Art and the Operational Level: The Case for the Defence

The operational level of war and the operational art are key concepts of Western military doctrine and consequently form important areas of study in staff colleges around the world. To stimulate discussion and debate about these important ideas, authors from the Defence Studies Department are exploring the continued utility of these concepts. In this second… Read More Operational Art and the Operational Level: The Case for the Defence

Robert T. Foley3 Comments

Operational Level and Operational Art: Still Useful Today?

The operational level of war and the operational art are key concepts of Western military doctrine and consequently form important areas of study in staff colleges around the world. To stimulate discussion and debate about these important ideas, authors from the Defence Studies Department will explore the continued utility of these concepts in two posts.… Read More Operational Level and Operational Art: Still Useful Today?

Robert T. Foley4 Comments
#####EOF##### COIN – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: COIN

A FORGOTTEN INTERVENTION: OPERATION HYPERION AND BRITISH PEACEKEEPERS IN LEBANON, 1982-1984.

DR GERAINT HUGHES In August the Round Table, the Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs, will publish a special edition on ‘The Commonwealth and Peacekeeping’, produced to mark over sixty years of peacekeeping operations since the establishment of UNEF after the 1956 Suez Crisis. This edition will contain articles on Gender and Peacekeeping, on Oceania’s role… Read More A FORGOTTEN INTERVENTION: OPERATION HYPERION AND BRITISH PEACEKEEPERS IN LEBANON, 1982-1984.

defenceresearchLeave a comment

All the Shah’s Men: The Imperial Iranian Brigade Group in the Dhofar War

The King’s College Research Centre for the History of Conflict will be hosting a symposium, ‘Armed Forces and the Cold War: Operations and Legacies’, at the JSCSC in the Tedder Lecture Theatre on 13th July 2016. All staff and students are warmly invited to attend.  DR GERAINT HUGHES In the autumn of 1972 Shah Reza… Read More All the Shah’s Men: The Imperial Iranian Brigade Group in the Dhofar War

defenceresearch17 Comments

Palestine 1945-48: the Information Campaign and the Limits of Influence

DR KATE UTTING In the past information, influence or non-kinetic psychological aspects of conflict had a supporting function to the physical, kinetic aspects; today it is seen as central. Militaries have done ‘influence’ for years, but there is a dominant view that in the current information environment all actions, deeds and words are scrutinised in… Read More Palestine 1945-48: the Information Campaign and the Limits of Influence

defenceresearch1 Comment

COUNTER-INSURGENCY: A QUESTION OF VICTORY

DR CHRISTINA GOULTER As Dr Huw Davies suggested in this post, how successfully the British armed forces incorporate their recent experience of counter-insurgency operations in Afghanistan and Iraq into doctrine and planning is likely to shape future perceptions of those campaigns. The fight against the Taliban has not ended, even for the West, because some advisory work by… Read More COUNTER-INSURGENCY: A QUESTION OF VICTORY

defenceresearch2 Comments

‘COUP-PROOFING’, INSURGENCIES AND MILITIAS.

DR GERAINT HUGHES In a previous post I commented on the increasing importance of militias in internal conflicts, particular with both the Syrian civil war and the conflict in Iraq against so-called Islamic State. Scholars of Iraqi history can indeed draw parallels between the Kurdish peshmerga’s relevance to the US-led Coalition war effort and the… Read More ‘COUP-PROOFING’, INSURGENCIES AND MILITIAS.

defenceresearch3 Comments

Military Innovation Studies: Well-Set for the Future?

 This is the fifth of several posts running on Defence-in-Depth arising out of the Military Learning and Innovation Roundtable held at the Joint Services Command and Staff College on Wednesday 17 June 2015. The roundtable explored the various ways in which armed forces have learned, adapted, and innovated in times of war and peace, austerity, and pressure… Read More Military Innovation Studies: Well-Set for the Future?

huwjdavies3 Comments
#####EOF##### Counterinsurgency – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Counterinsurgency

‘Counter-Insurgency Against Kith and Kin’: British Army Combat and Cohesion in Northern Ireland

DR EDWARD BURKE Dr Burke is Assistant Professor in International Relations at the University of Nottingham. ‘An Army of Tribes: British Army Cohesion, Deviancy and Murder in Northern Ireland’ is published in paperback by Liverpool University Press, and is available here. Today’s officers in the British Army who served in Northern Ireland during Operation Banner… Read More ‘Counter-Insurgency Against Kith and Kin’: British Army Combat and Cohesion in Northern Ireland

defenceresearch1 Comment

French Revolutionary War Theory: Conflict Between War and Peace

DR MIKE FINCH One of the most salient features of warfare during the present decade appears to be breakdown of the barrier between the state of war and the state of peace. As Chief of the General Staff Sir Nick Carter noted in his foreword to Army Doctrine Publication: Operations: ‘No longer is there a… Read More French Revolutionary War Theory: Conflict Between War and Peace

defenceresearch3 Comments

Coalitions and Ethical Relativism: Challenges for Those on the Ground

DR DAVID WHETHAM is Reader in Military Ethics and Director of the King’s Centre for Military Ethics. Editorial note: This article contains content some readers may find upsetting.   In the latest volume to come out in the book series from the European Chapter of the International Society for Military Ethics, I write about the… Read More Coalitions and Ethical Relativism: Challenges for Those on the Ground

benkienzleLeave a comment

All the Shah’s Men: The Imperial Iranian Brigade Group in the Dhofar War

The King’s College Research Centre for the History of Conflict will be hosting a symposium, ‘Armed Forces and the Cold War: Operations and Legacies’, at the JSCSC in the Tedder Lecture Theatre on 13th July 2016. All staff and students are warmly invited to attend.  DR GERAINT HUGHES In the autumn of 1972 Shah Reza… Read More All the Shah’s Men: The Imperial Iranian Brigade Group in the Dhofar War

defenceresearch17 Comments

Palestine 1945-48: the Information Campaign and the Limits of Influence

DR KATE UTTING In the past information, influence or non-kinetic psychological aspects of conflict had a supporting function to the physical, kinetic aspects; today it is seen as central. Militaries have done ‘influence’ for years, but there is a dominant view that in the current information environment all actions, deeds and words are scrutinised in… Read More Palestine 1945-48: the Information Campaign and the Limits of Influence

defenceresearch1 Comment

COUNTER-INSURGENCY: A QUESTION OF VICTORY

DR CHRISTINA GOULTER As Dr Huw Davies suggested in this post, how successfully the British armed forces incorporate their recent experience of counter-insurgency operations in Afghanistan and Iraq into doctrine and planning is likely to shape future perceptions of those campaigns. The fight against the Taliban has not ended, even for the West, because some advisory work by… Read More COUNTER-INSURGENCY: A QUESTION OF VICTORY

defenceresearch2 Comments

Film Portrayals of Counterinsurgency and Nation-building in Vietnam

DR JEFFREY MICHAELS AND DR ANDREW GAWTHORPE In a recent article in a special issue of Small Wars & Insurgencies, we considered the contribution Hollywood has made to our understanding of counterinsurgency and nation-building during the Vietnam War. The war has been the subject of so many blockbuster films that it is inevitable that they… Read More Film Portrayals of Counterinsurgency and Nation-building in Vietnam

defenceresearch1 Comment
#####EOF##### April 2016 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: April 2016

Conference Report: Society of Military History Annual Meeting, Ottawa, April 2016

  By DR HUW J. DAVIES   The annual meeting of any large professional body or learned society usually produces a wide-range of panels and papers, to which it is impossible to attend all, and between which there is usually a limited relationship. They are an opportunity for old and new colleagues from across the… Read More Conference Report: Society of Military History Annual Meeting, Ottawa, April 2016

huwjdaviesLeave a comment

Strategy, Operations and Perception: The Coastal Bombardments of 1916

DR DAVID MORGAN-OWEN At shortly after 4am on the morning of April 25th 1916 the residents of Lowestoft were awakened by the thunder of naval gunfire. Heavy caliber shells began to crash into the town in a whirlwind bombardment which lasted around ten minutes. Half an hour later, for the second time in the War, the… Read More Strategy, Operations and Perception: The Coastal Bombardments of 1916

davidmorganowenLeave a comment

“The Room Where it Happens” Enforcing Neutrality in the West Indies during the American War of Independence

ANNA BRINKMAN International agreements are often touted as great achievements of a nation’s foreign policy and are usually accompanied by great fanfare. Peace treaties, meant to offer some form of conflict resolution, and treaties which govern the conduct of neutral nations during times of war are no exception. Once the fanfare has subsided, however, there… Read More “The Room Where it Happens” Enforcing Neutrality in the West Indies during the American War of Independence

defenceresearchLeave a comment

WHY THE EU’S FOREIGN POLICY FAILS TO BREAK DOWN BARRIERS TO PEACE

By DR AMIR M KAMEL At the 2016 International Studies Association (ISA) conference, I presented a paper arguing that the EU’s peace-through-trade policy failed in the cases of Iraq, Iran and Libya as it did not take into account the context in which it was being implemented, i.e. the barriers to peace. The paper draws from… Read More WHY THE EU’S FOREIGN POLICY FAILS TO BREAK DOWN BARRIERS TO PEACE

amirmkamelLeave a comment

Identities Set in Stone? The Delville Wood and Vimy Memorials As Sites of Hybridity

HANNA SMYTH Are memorials set in stone? It seems an obvious question. Yes, of course they are, and the Delville Wood and Vimy memorials are two stunningly evocative examples, set in stone as perennial testaments to those who died, those who missed them, and the emerging nations who lost them. Yet in the complex new… Read More Identities Set in Stone? The Delville Wood and Vimy Memorials As Sites of Hybridity

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Future Strategic Priorities for Professional Military Education: A Practitioner Perspective

DURAID JALILI At the end of last year, the King’s Centre for Military Education Outreach (CMEO) put together its first ever Professional Military Education (PME) Working Group. This took place over the course of two days on the 10 – 11th December 2015, at the Joint Services Command and Staff College (Shrivenham, UK). The event… Read More Future Strategic Priorities for Professional Military Education: A Practitioner Perspective

defenceresearch1 Comment

Understanding a different ‘holy trinity’: procurement and British defence policy, part 3: Time

DR ED HAMPSHIRE My previous two blogposts on the procurement trinity covered capability and cost. Many people see the problems of defence procurement as a trade-off between one of these two factors or the other, but there is also the third forgotten element: time. Delays in projects can affect the other two elements of the… Read More Understanding a different ‘holy trinity’: procurement and British defence policy, part 3: Time

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Understanding a different ‘holy trinity’: procurement and British defence policy, part 2: Cost

DR ED HAMPSHIRE In my previous post I discussed the problems faced in defence procurement deriving from one of the members of the procurement trinity: ‘capability’. This post will now turn to the second element of this trinity: cost. It is the cost escalation of projects that unsurprisingly most exercises the Treasury when it reviews… Read More Understanding a different ‘holy trinity’: procurement and British defence policy, part 2: Cost

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Understanding a different ‘holy trinity’: procurement and British defence policy, part 1: capability

DR ED HAMPSHIRE In defence procurement, as in Clausewitz’s description of warfare, there is a ‘holy trinity’ that must be kept in balance to ensure success and the achievement of objectives. The procurement trinity consists of capability, cost and time. The piece of equipment, weapon system or platform that has been procured must be able… Read More Understanding a different ‘holy trinity’: procurement and British defence policy, part 1: capability

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Nagorno-Karabakh clashes threaten stability in the South Caucasus

DR TRACEY GERMAN Violence has erupted in the South Caucasus, with clashes between Armenian and Azerbaijani troops along the Line of Contact around Nagorno-Karabakh resulting in a number of casualties. The military clashes began in the early hours of 2 April, while both the Armenian and Azerbaijani presidents were attending the Nuclear Security Summit in… Read More Nagorno-Karabakh clashes threaten stability in the South Caucasus

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### November 2014 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: November 2014

Forgotten Battles: Operation Léa, Oct-Nov 1947: A wild gamble at finishing the Indochina War?

Forgotten Battles is a feature on Defence-in-Depth designed to bring long-lost battles back from the depths of history. Our authors have chosen these engagements because they believe that their significance has been overlooked or overshadowed by better-remembered battles in history. The significance of the chosen battles may have been strategic and influenced greatly a particular… Read More Forgotten Battles: Operation Léa, Oct-Nov 1947: A wild gamble at finishing the Indochina War?

defenceresearch1 Comment

Is There a Place for the EU in International Security?

by DR BENJAMIN KIENZLE It’s a crowded field out there. During the last few decades, international institutions dealing with security and defence in one way or another have mushroomed all over the world. This ranges from highly technical associations of states known only to a small group of experts such as the Australia Group to… Read More Is There a Place for the EU in International Security?

defenceresearch1 Comment

FAILING US SANCTIONS AND IRAN’S BEHAVIOUR

by DR AMIR M. KAMEL Using economic sanctions to curb state behaviour is something which has conventionally been considered as an apt supporter or supported government tool alongside military and political levers of power. Indeed, whilst it is increasingly important to combine economic, military, and political methods to achieve influence, it is nevertheless important to… Read More FAILING US SANCTIONS AND IRAN’S BEHAVIOUR

amirmkamelLeave a comment

Op REFLECT: What Can We Learn From the First World War?

by DR ROBERT T. FOLEY Over the past year or so, I have been involved with the British army’s Operation REFLECT. This operation has been designed to mark the centenary of the First World War and the British army’s participation in this conflict. Much of this operation has focused around the traditional methods of remembrance… Read More Op REFLECT: What Can We Learn From the First World War?

Robert T. Foley9 Comments

From the Archives: The Causes of the First British Invasion of Afghanistan, 1839-42.

by DR HUW J. DAVIES ‘From the Archives’ is a new regular feature on Defence-in-Depth. Archives are the lifeblood of historians. Papers, correspondence, diaries and journals constitute the primary material on which historical analysis is based. This feature is designed to fulfil two objectives. Our authors have selected an archive that has yielded an important… Read More From the Archives: The Causes of the First British Invasion of Afghanistan, 1839-42.

huwjdaviesLeave a comment

Reflections on Deterrence and the Lessons of History

by PROF WYN BOWEN, DR DAVID JORDAN & DR KATE UTTING The reflections of ‘Cold War warriors’ provided prescient insights into the wider application of deterrence during a recent Witness Seminar organised by the Defence Studies Department and the Institute for Contemporary British History at the Institute of Historical Research. The term ‘deterrence’ is often… Read More Reflections on Deterrence and the Lessons of History

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Military History – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Military History

The Furlough Mutiny and the Struggle for Cassino in the Second World War

JONATHAN FENNELL Jonathan Fennell is author of Fighting the People’s War: The British and Commonwealth Armies and the Second World War, which was published by Cambridge University Press in February 2019. Three quarters of a century ago, soldiers of the British and Commonwealth Armies were embroiled in one of the iconic battles of the Second… Read More The Furlough Mutiny and the Struggle for Cassino in the Second World War

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Jan Smuts and the Anglo-American World Order

DR JOHN MITCHAM John is Assistant Professor of History at Duquesne University. He is an historian of the British Empire, with a particular focus on settler colonialism in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. His book, Race and Imperial Defence in the British World 1870-1914 (Cambridge University Press, 2016), examined the cultural links between Britain and… Read More Jan Smuts and the Anglo-American World Order

defenceresearch1 Comment

Civil Resettlement Units – a lesson from the past

DR CLARE MAKEPEACE Clare is an historian, writer, lecturer and consultant in the cultural history of the First and Second World Wars. Her debut book Captives of War. British Prisoners of War in Europe in the Second World War was published in 2017, and she holds the position of Honorary Research Fellow at Birkbeck, University of London. You can… Read More Civil Resettlement Units – a lesson from the past

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Infernal Machines: the Royal Navy and the asymmetric challenge of mine warfare

DR RICHARD DUNLEY Richard Dunley is a Lecturer in History at UNSW, Canberra and has recently published Britain and the Mine, 1900-1915: Strategy, Culture and International Law with Palgrave Macmillan. Why do military organisations develop and adopt some technologies with ease, whilst others face deep institutional opposition? This is a hugely important question in an… Read More Infernal Machines: the Royal Navy and the asymmetric challenge of mine warfare

defenceresearch2 Comments

An Open Secret: British Open Source Intelligence during the Second World War

DR BEN WHEATLEY Ben Wheatley is a Honorary Research Fellow in the School of History, University of East Anglia and a former Teaching Fellow at the Defence Studies Department, King’s College London. His 2017 book, British Intelligence and Hitler’s Empire in the Soviet Union, 1941-1945 published by Bloomsbury Academic will be available in paperback from August 2018. You… Read More An Open Secret: British Open Source Intelligence during the Second World War

defenceresearch1 Comment

SWWRG Conference Report – 2018 The Peoples’ War? The Second World War in Socio-Political Perspective

DR ALEX WILSON Editorial Note: On 14-15 June 2018, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘The Peoples’ War? The Second World War in Socio-Political Perspective.’ Over the coming weeks, we will be posting short blog articles written by some of the conference’s presenters. In this first post,… Read More SWWRG Conference Report – 2018 The Peoples’ War? The Second World War in Socio-Political Perspective

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Conference Report of inaugural Sir Michael Howard Centre Joint KCL/Oxford PhD Conference, 23 April 2018

ANDREW HARRIS April saw the inaugural History of War Conference organised in partnership by King’s College London and the University of Oxford. The event was organised for PhD students from both institutions, sponsored by the Sir Michael Howard Centre and held at KCL’s Strand campus. The programme consisted of a set of small panel discussions,… Read More Conference Report of inaugural Sir Michael Howard Centre Joint KCL/Oxford PhD Conference, 23 April 2018

defenceresearchLeave a comment

What is War?

JEREMY BLACK Prof. Jeremy Black studied at studied at Queens’ College Cambridge, St John’s College Oxford, and Merton College Oxford before joining the University of Durham as a lecturer in 1980. There he gained his PhD and ultimately his professorship in 1994. He joined Exeter University as Established Chair in History in 1996, and is currently a… Read More What is War?

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Research – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Research

DSD Summer Reading #3

In this series members of the Defence Studies Department share the books they are reading this summer. Click here for part I and part II.  Dr Avinash Paliwal Vinay Sitapati, Half Lion: How P V Narasimha Rao Transformed India (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 2016) This political biography of India’s largely discredited, but immensely transformational prime minister, P V Narasimha Rao,… Read More DSD Summer Reading #3

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### June 2018 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: June 2018

THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY GENERAL: FROM INDIVIDUAL TO COLLECTIVE COMMAND

PROF ANTHONY KING Professor Anthony King specialises in the study of the war and the armed forces and is particularly interested in the question of small unit cohesion. His most recent publications include The Combat Soldier: infantry tactics and cohesion in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries (Oxford, 2013) and (ed.) Frontline: combat and cohesion in… Read More THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY GENERAL: FROM INDIVIDUAL TO COLLECTIVE COMMAND

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Conference Report of inaugural Sir Michael Howard Centre Joint KCL/Oxford PhD Conference, 23 April 2018

ANDREW HARRIS April saw the inaugural History of War Conference organised in partnership by King’s College London and the University of Oxford. The event was organised for PhD students from both institutions, sponsored by the Sir Michael Howard Centre and held at KCL’s Strand campus. The programme consisted of a set of small panel discussions,… Read More Conference Report of inaugural Sir Michael Howard Centre Joint KCL/Oxford PhD Conference, 23 April 2018

defenceresearchLeave a comment

What is War?

JEREMY BLACK Prof. Jeremy Black studied at studied at Queens’ College Cambridge, St John’s College Oxford, and Merton College Oxford before joining the University of Durham as a lecturer in 1980. There he gained his PhD and ultimately his professorship in 1994. He joined Exeter University as Established Chair in History in 1996, and is currently a… Read More What is War?

defenceresearchLeave a comment

AMERICAN EMPIRE: REALITIES AND UNCERTAINTIES

A.G. HOPKINS Tony Hopkins is Emeritus Smuts Professor of Commonwealth History in the University of Cambridge, Emeritus Fellow of Pembroke College, and Emeritus Walter Prescott Webb Chair in History in the University of Texas at Austin. He holds a Ph.D. from the University of London, Honorary Doctorates from the Universities of Stirling and Birmingham, and… Read More AMERICAN EMPIRE: REALITIES AND UNCERTAINTIES

defenceresearch1 Comment

A British “Way” in Covert Action

RORY CORMAC Rory Cormac is an associate professor of international Relations at the University of Nottingham. He is the author of Disrupt and Deny: Spies, Special Forces, and the Secret Pursuit of British Foreign Policy (OUP, 2018). You an follow him at @RoryCormac. Unacknowledged interference in the affairs of other states is all around us.… Read More A British “Way” in Covert Action

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### December 2016 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: December 2016

The British Army’s role in defending NATO’s Eastern Border

DR WARREN CHIN This post summarised some of the evidence Dr Chin gave to the House of Commons Defence Select Committee on the British Army and SDSR 15 in October. A recording  of the session is available here. SDSR 15 acknowledged the increased threat posed by Russia to NATO and made clear its intention to deter any future Russian… Read More The British Army’s role in defending NATO’s Eastern Border

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Back to Reality: British Foreign Policy and Strategy in the Post-BREXIT Era

PROF GREG KENNEDY In recent months there have been two manifestations of a worrying trend that has been observable in British foreign policy making for nearly three decades now. The trend is a decaying of accountability for foreign policy making in the upper levels of government, combined with a policy making strategic culture that is… Read More Back to Reality: British Foreign Policy and Strategy in the Post-BREXIT Era

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Watching the Start of a New American Era from the Edge of the World

WHITNEY GRESPIN On November 8 – the second Tuesday of November – I found myself in Anchorage, Alaska watching the poll counts climb state by state while the minutes passed. As polls closed and states on TV monitors lit up as either blue or red, ebullient celebration or quiet resignation crossed the faces of those… Read More Watching the Start of a New American Era from the Edge of the World

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Operational Level – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Operational Level

The Operational Level as Military Innovation: Past, Present and Future

DR STUART GRIFFIN As Defence-in-Depth once again spends time exploring the concepts of the operational level and operational art, it seems an appropriate time to relate my previous contribution on the subject to the other research strand that I have previously blogged about: military innovation. Though the popular focus of military innovation tends to be… Read More The Operational Level as Military Innovation: Past, Present and Future

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The operational level of war and maritime forces

DR. TIM BENBOW The recurrent debate over whether or not the operational level of war exists can sometimes feel like the land component talking to itself.  The vast majority of what is written about the operational level, and operational art, focusses predominantly on land operations.  It is rare to find an acknowledgement of the significance… Read More The operational level of war and maritime forces

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Operational Art and the Operational Level: The Case for the Defence

The operational level of war and the operational art are key concepts of Western military doctrine and consequently form important areas of study in staff colleges around the world. To stimulate discussion and debate about these important ideas, authors from the Defence Studies Department are exploring the continued utility of these concepts. In this second… Read More Operational Art and the Operational Level: The Case for the Defence

Robert T. Foley3 Comments

Operational Level and Operational Art: Still Useful Today?

The operational level of war and the operational art are key concepts of Western military doctrine and consequently form important areas of study in staff colleges around the world. To stimulate discussion and debate about these important ideas, authors from the Defence Studies Department will explore the continued utility of these concepts in two posts.… Read More Operational Level and Operational Art: Still Useful Today?

Robert T. Foley4 Comments

The Operational Level of War and the Operational Art

by DR HUW J. DAVIES and DR ROBERT T. FOLEY In recent years, particularly since difficulties have been encountered in Afghanistan and Iraq, military thinkers and practitioners have begun questioning the existence of the operational level of war. Some argue that the articulation of the concept was a distraction from adequate attention to the tactical… Read More The Operational Level of War and the Operational Art

Robert T. Foley4 Comments
#####EOF##### ‘Your Boy’s Future’ – Apprentice Training and Social Mobility in the Early Royal Air Force – Defence-In-Depth

‘Your Boy’s Future’ – Apprentice Training and Social Mobility in the Early Royal Air Force

SOPHY GARDNER

Sophy Gardner is a PhD student at the University of Exeter, and a former RAF Wing Commander of twenty-years experience. You can follow her on Twitter @sophygardner

In many ways, the newly created RAF’s approach to the resource and recruitment challenges of the early inter-war period was highly modern, presaging later educational reforms such as academic selection to grammar schools and promoting meritocratic principles long before Michael Young’s dystopian critique coined the term ‘meritocracy’.[1] While the education of officers in staff colleges and in preparation for command attracts much contemporary attention, and some historical analysis, the recruitment, education, and opportunities provided to non-commissioned airmen in the early days of the RAF provide a complementary case study of a progressive and creative solution designed at a time of economic and political difficulty for the young force.

The focus on training, and attracting the brightest boys to the junior service was a central pillar of the RAF’s post-war plan. The RAF’s Chief, Hugh Trenchard, singled out the training of men (as opposed to officers) as: ‘The most difficult problem of all in the formation of this force’.[2] In the challenging financial climate of the time, he chose to target his limited resources not on new technology, but on the less glamorous attributes of buildings, training, and personnel. Trenchard firmly favoured foundations over aircraft and squadrons. Apprentice training for boys was to form a key part of the new RAF’s identity, with a scheme that ran, in a form recognisable from its roots in 1919, until 1993.

In fact, these plans contained significantly more than the seeds for the future growth of a skilled workforce and a fundamental building block of the service: it also had a strong and important public-facing aspect to it, offering a good education for young boys from less privileged backgrounds, ensuring them solid prospects for later civilian life. Additionally, from the outset it consciously promoted social mobility within the service, the realisation of which benefited the RAF of the Second World War and beyond, as much as it changed the lives of the many individuals who made the journey from secondary school to senior leadership.

The age of enlistment was from fifteen to sixteen and a half years old: aimed at attracting school leavers who might be enticed by a career in aviation, with its glamorous associations with hero pilots. Each course lasted three years and consisted of a remarkably comprehensive educational syllabus, as well as core vocational skills for future aircraft technicians, military training, and the inculcation of a particular and self-confident RAF identity. RAF Halton was to become the flagship training centre of the post-war RAF, home to No 1 School of Technical Training (Boys).

ENTRY

The Air Ministry approached the challenges of attracting sufficient applicants by reaching out to those geographically and economically distant from the opportunities the training offered. Working with Local Education Authorities (LEAs), who provided vital local assistance and knowledge to the centralised bureaucracy of the post-war RAF, the Air Ministry devised a system in which boys were nominated by their LEA for examinations held locally. The express intention was to make the process as accessible as possible, devised to be ‘brought as far as possible into line with the ordinary work of schools so that a boy can take it without special preparation’ and without the need to travel far. The Air Ministry wanted to make sure it captured able boys even if their parents could not afford ‘the expense of sending them to some distant examination centre’.[3]

This explicit effort to make the apprentice scheme as accessible as possible to ‘ordinary’ boys in state-funded education would have been an admirable attempt at improving social mobility even without the additional plan to offer the top graduating apprentices the opportunity to progress to cadetships at the RAF College Cranwell, for officer training. This emerged as a key element of the scheme at its earliest stages, and was refined and developed during the 1920s.

CADETSHIPS

Treasury files reveal the discussions between the Air Ministry and the Treasury, which led to concrete financial support for the scheme. The Air Ministry wrote to the Secretary of the Treasury in 1920 that the existing regulations included ‘a suggestion that boys who complete the course of training satisfactorily may be offered cadetships in the Royal Air Force, but this offer will be meaningless unless it is accompanied by a remission of the fees ordinarily payable by the cadets’. The fees at Cranwell (approximately £75 a year) were well out of the reach of ordinary boys from families who could not afford train fares or school fees. The letter went on to say that the Air Council ‘trusts that Their Lordships will give favourable consideration to the proposals contained in this letter. They feel that under modern conditions considerable facilities for promotion from the ranks are required’.[4]Minute sheets in the files then record an internal discussion between Mr Pemberton and Mr Pinsent, of the Treasury, with Mr Pemberton offering the view:

This seems to be the question of how far we can go in the direction of “democratization” of the forces. […] I think it is not unreasonable to say that the RAF is altogether a more democratic force than the Army or Navy. It is clear from 39947/19 that the senior officers of the Army are desirous of adhering to the aristocratic tradition as far as possible and from what I know of the Navy their views are the same. At any rate I think it very unlikely that they would want to send boys of the Air Mechanics class to Dartmouth.

In reply, Mr Pinsent pointed out that other documentation showed the Navy also aspired to be ‘democratic’ and he confirmed that the Treasury had already sanctioned a scheme ‘even more generous’ (financially one assumes from the Treasury viewpoint) for Naval candidates for Dartmouth.[5]The Treasury concurred with the Air Ministry’s petition and wrote to support up to twelve cadetships a year, exempting the successful candidates from fees and from payments for uniforms and books, as well as giving grants for outfits and camp kit.

The apprentices who won cadetships performed well at Cranwell, despite their very different backgrounds from other cadets: testament, it is argued, to the breadth and depth of the apprenticeship syllabus. One of Halton’s alumni who went on to progress to air rank was Air Marshal Sir Kenneth Porter. He had applied for an apprenticeship as a result of being orphaned with no financial means at the age of fourteen. His recollections include his specific praise of the curriculum:

The syllabus covered mechanics, mechanical drawing and a general subject titled English. This last subject covered amongst other things a broad coverage of the history of civilisations starting at the Stone Age and finishing with the organisation of local and Parliamentary Government, and the reading of Shaw’s Plays, it was not only most interesting but taught what few, if any, schools taught. […] Looking back I think that the excellence of the education was the reason that the many Apprentices who were commissioned during the war did so well and reached high rank. I found when I became a cadet at Cranwell that I had already done more mathematics than the syllabus required and the rest of the education course gave me no difficulty.[6]

A report by the Board of Education on Apprentice Training later in the 1930s shows that teaching the arts and humanities, alongside trades skills and sciences, had continued, ensuring the boys were in a position to compete successfully as trainee officers at Cranwell alongside the majority who had a public school education.[7]

One winner of a cadetship was Frank Whittle, later Group Captain and father of the jet engine, who in an article for the Halton Magazine recorded: ‘it is worthy of record that the six of us of the September [19]23 entry who became Flight Cadets took six out of the first seven places on passing out of the R.A.F. College’.[8]The Cranwell Character Book, which recorded details of RAF College Cadets, showed that airmen apprentices came top of the officers’ course on seventeen out of thirty-two courses on which there were cadets (and while constituting on average only 10.5% of the attendees).[9]

CONCLUSION

The factors pertinent to the RAF developing the apprentice scheme were, as with so much of the RAF’s early post-war development, a confluence of needs and aspirations that came together in a modern and novel form. The RAF needed to cement its identity and develop a cadre of men who were RAF to the core, with no previous allegiance to the other services. Recruitment of skilled workers was inadequate for the needs of the service and so attracting teenage boys, with whom the populist cultural and symbolic appeals of aircraft and aviation were probably most effective, gave the RAF a ready pool of applicants. Demonstrating a desire to ‘open doors’ to candidates who might not otherwise be able to apply for an apprenticeship, and offering a comprehensive further education, afforded the RAF additional reputational prestige.

The opportunity for cadetships with access, therefore, to an overt form of social mobility was innovative and neoteric. It also stood in contrast with the post-war attitudes of the other services. The War Office, facing shortages of skilled men in various wireless trades, resorted to public advertisements and offers of £100 bounties to join, yet after fifteen months they had attracted only 244 out of the required 1250 men.[10] In the same year, interest in the boys apprentice scheme was bearing dividends: ‘a very good type of boy is being obtained. In July last there were some 1,100 applicants for 500 vacancies’.[11]

The Second World War is the key backdrop against which the achievements of apprentice training can be viewed. The training scheme provided a large cohort of the RAF with a firm sense of identity forged through a shared experience of a long, testing, and intense training process. These early recruits would form the backbone of the wartime RAF, as aircraft technicians, sergeant aircrew, and commissioned officers. The scheme was a success from the start and between 1923 and 1958 over 20% of the boys who graduated were granted commissions; 80% of the rest became senior Non-Commissioned Officers. The active efforts of the RAF to find talented recruits from across the country, nurture and educate them to a high standard, and offer them the opportunity to reach the very highest ranks of the service, were ahead of their time and deserve their place in the history of military education.

[1]Michael Young, The Rise of the Meritocracy: 1870-2033; an Essay on Education and Equality, (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1976).

[2]Cmd 467, An Outline of the Scheme for the Permanent Organization of the Royal Air Force, 11 December 1919, copy available in [T]he [N]ational [A]rchives, AIR 1/17/15/1/84.

[3]TNA, Air 2/148, Boy Mechanics, Royal Air Force, letter to unnamed official from Educational Adviser for Air Commodore Director of Training and Organisation, 9 May 1921.

[4]TNA T 161/58/9, letter from McAnally to Bairstow, 22 September 1920.

[5]TNA T 161/58/9, minute sheet recording discussion between Mr Pemberton and Mr Pinsent, 8-16 October 1920.

[6]Trenchard Museum Archive, ‘One of Trenchards Brats’ [sic], Air Marshal Sir Kenneth Porter Recollections, undated, unaccessioned, 8-9.

[7]TNA ED 114/509, Report of Inspection of the Training Scheme for Aircraft Apprentices, Royal Air Force, Cranwell’, 1936, included a recommendation limiting history teaching to ‘19thcentury History and be continued to the present day. This plan would allow more time to be given to the remaining parts of the syllabus which could be dealt with more fully.’

[8]Trenchard Museum Archive, ‘Per Ardua Ad Astra Superna Petimus Perseventia’, Group Captain Whittle, Halton Magazine, 1944.

[9]RAF Cranwell Archive, CRN/D/2011/71, RAF College Character Book, from Fin Monahan, ‘The Origins of the Organisational Culture of the Royal Air Force’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Birmingham, 2018), p181.

[10]RAF Museum, Personal Papers of Lord Trenchard, MFC 76/1/100 2 of 3, letter from Air Commodore Game to Trenchard, 24 October 1921.

[11]TNA, Air 8/42, Memorandum on Air Expenditure prepared by the Air Ministry for the Committee of National Expenditure, October 1921.

Image: Lord Trenchard inspecting apprentices at RAF Halton at a passing out parade, 1927, via wikimedia commons.

Leave a Reply

Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in:

Gravatar
WordPress.com Logo

You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Google photo

You are commenting using your Google account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Twitter picture

You are commenting using your Twitter account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Facebook photo

You are commenting using your Facebook account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Cancel

Connecting to %s

%d bloggers like this:
#####EOF##### June 2017 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: June 2017

War in Historical and Contemporary Perspective Conference Report

DR JONATHAN FENNELL & DR DAVID MORGAN-OWEN —You can access a full list of audio and video recordings of the event via soundcloud or youtube — On 5 June, the Sir Michael Howard Centre for the History of War and the School of Security Studies King’s College London hosted a conference on War in Historical… Read More War in Historical and Contemporary Perspective Conference Report

davidmorganowen1 Comment

The Ukrainian Crisis: The Role of, and Implications for, Sub-State and Non-State Actors

DR EMMANUEL KARAGIANNIS and DR TRACEY GERMAN The conflict in eastern Ukraine has entered its fourth year with little sign of a negotiated resolution. Crimea has been absorbed into the Russian Federation and celebrated the third anniversary of its ‘integration’ in March 2017. To date, most scholarly analyses of the conflict have focused on the… Read More The Ukrainian Crisis: The Role of, and Implications for, Sub-State and Non-State Actors

benkienzleLeave a comment

The Gulf Rift – A war over two irreconcilable narratives

DR ANDREAS KRIEG Dr Krieg is the author of Socio-Political Order and Security in the Arab World: From Regime Security to Public Security. This the second blog post by DSD’s Middle East experts on the Qatar Crisis. Amid the ongoing escalation in the Arabian Gulf, diplomats, regional news outlets and experts are heavily bogged down… Read More The Gulf Rift – A war over two irreconcilable narratives

benkienzleLeave a comment

Space Warfare in the Pentagon: In Support of an Independent Space Corps

DR BLEDDYN BOWEN The US Department of Defense and the House of Representatives have been abuzz of late regarding the question of setting up an independent space corps within the US Air Force (USAF).  The House Armed Services strategic forces subcommittee unveiled their intention to legislate this space corps loosely along the lines of the… Read More Space Warfare in the Pentagon: In Support of an Independent Space Corps

defenceresearch3 Comments

The UK’s International Defence Engagement Strategy: Lessons from Bassingbourn

LT COL JAMES CHANDLER In 2015 Lieutenant Colonel James Chandler was the Chief of the General Staff’s inaugural Army Visiting Fellow to the Royal Institute of International Affairs, Chatham House.  The following post is a short summary of his research paper published by Chatham House in April 2016 (available here).  The author argues that if… Read More The UK’s International Defence Engagement Strategy: Lessons from Bassingbourn

defenceresearch1 Comment

The New National Army Museum: A Review

HANNA SMYTH Hanna Smyth is a DPhil student at the University of Oxford with the Globalising and Localising the Great War research network. Her research examines how Imperial War Graves Commission sites represented, reinforced, and performed different aspects of identity for South Africa, India, Canada, & Australia in France and Belgium between 1917-1938. She earned her MA in… Read More The New National Army Museum: A Review

defenceresearch1 Comment

Trump v. Kim: A Test of Wills Over the Korean Peninsula

DR PAUL D. MILLER Paul D. Miller is the associate director of the Clements Center for National Security at The University of Texas at Austin. He served on the NSC staff as Director for Afghanistan and Pakistan from 2007 to 2009. North Korea is a perennial candidate for America’s next war and a regular contender… Read More Trump v. Kim: A Test of Wills Over the Korean Peninsula

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Commemoration – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Commemoration

Commemorating the centenary of the First World War: launch of a War and Society special edition

DR HELEN MCCARTNEY Centenaries can be moments of reflection for states and their people.  They provide an opportunity to re-consider existing narratives about past events and confirm or repurpose their meaning to inform individual and collective identities as well as important political and social relationships.  This premise was the starting point for a symposium organized… Read More Commemorating the centenary of the First World War: launch of a War and Society special edition

defenceresearch1 Comment

The New National Army Museum: A Review

HANNA SMYTH Hanna Smyth is a DPhil student at the University of Oxford with the Globalising and Localising the Great War research network. Her research examines how Imperial War Graves Commission sites represented, reinforced, and performed different aspects of identity for South Africa, India, Canada, & Australia in France and Belgium between 1917-1938. She earned her MA in… Read More The New National Army Museum: A Review

defenceresearch1 Comment

The Path to War: America and the First World War a Century On

Michael Neiberg is the inaugural Chair of War Studies at the US Army War College in Carlisle, Pennsylvania and the author, most recently, of Path to War: How the First World War Created Modern America (Oxford University Press). You can hear Mike discuss the new book here and here. The views expressed herein are his alone and do not represent… Read More The Path to War: America and the First World War a Century On

defenceresearch2 Comments

Legacies of the Great War: the Experiences of the British and American Legions during the Second World War

ASHLEY GARBER Ashely is a DPhil student in the Globalizing & Localising the Great War programme at the University of Oxford. You can here a recording of the talk associated with this post here. The year 2017 marks the centenary of American involvement in the First World War, but it is unlikely to draw the… Read More Legacies of the Great War: the Experiences of the British and American Legions during the Second World War

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Conference Report: Commemorating the Centenary of the First World War

DR AIMÉE FOX-GODDEN & DR DAVID MORGAN-OWEN This post reflects upon an event held on January 12th in the River Room at King’s College London. The symposium featured contributions from Prof Jay Winter, Dr Helen McCartney, Prof Annika Mombauer, Hanna Smyth, Dr Jenny Macleod, Dr Heather Jones, and Dr Catriona Pennell. Recordings of all of… Read More Conference Report: Commemorating the Centenary of the First World War

davidmorganowen1 Comment

Identities Set in Stone? The Delville Wood and Vimy Memorials As Sites of Hybridity

HANNA SMYTH Are memorials set in stone? It seems an obvious question. Yes, of course they are, and the Delville Wood and Vimy memorials are two stunningly evocative examples, set in stone as perennial testaments to those who died, those who missed them, and the emerging nations who lost them. Yet in the complex new… Read More Identities Set in Stone? The Delville Wood and Vimy Memorials As Sites of Hybridity

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Commemorating the First World War at Sea

DR DAVID MORGAN-OWEN Last week the Culture Secretary announced the government’s plans for the centenary commemorations of the Battle of Jutland. In addition to remembering the sacrifice of those sailors who lost their lives in the Battle itself, he described the anniversary as an opportunity to remember ‘the pivotal role that the Royal Navy played… Read More Commemorating the First World War at Sea

davidmorganowen5 Comments
#####EOF##### Law – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Law

“The Room Where it Happens” Enforcing Neutrality in the West Indies during the American War of Independence

ANNA BRINKMAN International agreements are often touted as great achievements of a nation’s foreign policy and are usually accompanied by great fanfare. Peace treaties, meant to offer some form of conflict resolution, and treaties which govern the conduct of neutral nations during times of war are no exception. Once the fanfare has subsided, however, there… Read More “The Room Where it Happens” Enforcing Neutrality in the West Indies during the American War of Independence

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Antigallican Affair: British Foreign Policy and the Personalities of the Spanish Court in the Seven Years’ War

ANNA BRINKMAN The creation of foreign policy and the prosecution of war are often largely dependent on the personalities and circumstances of those in power. This is, perhaps, a disconcerting truth that can be mitigated by the development of international law, alliances, and multilateral or unilateral treaties. The mitigation, however, only goes so far, as… Read More The Antigallican Affair: British Foreign Policy and the Personalities of the Spanish Court in the Seven Years’ War

defenceresearch1 Comment

Why Does Ethics Matter for the Military?

DR DAVID WHETHAM The military profession, as with all professions, is defined and governed in large part by its ethic; the rules and behaviours by which its members conduct themselves. Any professional military force, anywhere in the world, sees itself as distinct from a ‘mere’ group of mercenaries or long-term contractors, and that self-identity is… Read More Why Does Ethics Matter for the Military?

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### September 2018 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: September 2018

Autonomous Weapons and the Epistemology of Targeting

DR DEANE-PETER BAKER Deane Baker is a Senior Lecturer in the School of Humanities and Social Sciences at UNSW Canberra, and a Visiting Senior Research Fellow in the Centre for Military Ethics at Kings College London. He is a panelist on the International Panel on the Regulation of Autonomous Weapons (IPRAW), however his comments here… Read More Autonomous Weapons and the Epistemology of Targeting

benkienzle1 Comment
#####EOF##### Hybrid Warfare – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Hybrid Warfare

Conference Report: 2018 Vienna Conference on Strategy

CHIARA LIBISELLER A few new concepts have come to dominate the more recent Western discourses on security and defence, both in the academic and practitioners’ sectors; these concepts include ‘hybrid war’, ‘cyber war’, ‘narratives’ and ‘resilience’.[i] They are invoked to help us understand, explain and react to threats that Europe and the United States are… Read More Conference Report: 2018 Vienna Conference on Strategy

benkienzleLeave a comment

The End of the Prague Spring – Fifty Years On

DR GERAINT HUGHES On the night of the 20th-21st August 1968, Soviet paratroopers and spetsnaz soldiers seized Ruzyne airport outside Prague, proceeding subsequently to take over key points in the Czechoslovak capital. The following day, 22 Soviet Army divisions – augmented by contingents from four other ‘fraternal’ Warsaw Pact states (Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic,… Read More The End of the Prague Spring – Fifty Years On

benkienzleLeave a comment

Current Russian and Chinese ways of warfare: the end (?) of military violence in peer-state conflict

DR ROD THORNTON When it comes to the winning of wars, it might be thought that military organisations today, just as they have always done, would be concentrating their efforts on how best to use kinetic force. Military violence is, after all, what militaries do. But not, it seems, any more – or at least… Read More Current Russian and Chinese ways of warfare: the end (?) of military violence in peer-state conflict

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Ukrainian Crisis: The Role of, and Implications for, Sub-State and Non-State Actors

DR EMMANUEL KARAGIANNIS and DR TRACEY GERMAN The conflict in eastern Ukraine has entered its fourth year with little sign of a negotiated resolution. Crimea has been absorbed into the Russian Federation and celebrated the third anniversary of its ‘integration’ in March 2017. To date, most scholarly analyses of the conflict have focused on the… Read More The Ukrainian Crisis: The Role of, and Implications for, Sub-State and Non-State Actors

benkienzleLeave a comment

The Russian military’s view on the utility of force: the adoption of a strategy of non-violent asymmetric warfare

By Dr. Rod Thornton Russian military thinking seems to have reached the point now where the idea of using force intentionally in conflicts with peer-state adversaries has been almost completely ruled out. This seems a radical move. But there has been a clear recognition within this military that better strategic outcomes for Russia will result… Read More The Russian military’s view on the utility of force: the adoption of a strategy of non-violent asymmetric warfare

defenceresearch1 Comment

LITTLE GREEN MEN AND RED ARMIES: WHY RUSSIAN ‘HYBRID WAR’ IS NOT NEW

DR GERAINT HUGHES Ever since the annexation of Crimea in February-March 2014, and the conflict in Eastern Ukraine, military analysts have debated the nature of ‘hybrid war’ – or ‘non-linear’/’ambiguous warfare’ – and whether it represents the military strategy of choice for Vladimir Putin’s Russia. The Polish, Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian militaries in particular are using Ukrainian-style… Read More LITTLE GREEN MEN AND RED ARMIES: WHY RUSSIAN ‘HYBRID WAR’ IS NOT NEW

defenceresearch8 Comments

RUSSIA HYBRID WAR – A RESPONSE

ROBERT SEELY Over 18 months into Russia’s not-so-very-proxy, proxy war in Ukraine, there remains a thriving and fascinating debate over the tools of conflict that Russia uses, how one describes those tools and where Russia’s next ‘target’ may be. I was asked to respond to Rod Thornton’s recent blog on Russia.  In his excellent piece,… Read More RUSSIA HYBRID WAR – A RESPONSE

defenceresearch1 Comment
#####EOF##### Diplomacy – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Diplomacy

The Role of Neutrality in the Pacific Theatre of the Second World War

Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Defence in Depth has been crossposting some of the proceedings of the conference, of which you can find more here. PASCA LOTTAZ Pascal Lottaz… Read More The Role of Neutrality in the Pacific Theatre of the Second World War

defenceresearchLeave a comment

THE RELUCTANT ALLY: ANGLO-SPANISH SLAVE TRADE NEGOTIATIONS 1820-1821

This post is part of a week of cross-posting between Defence-in-Depth and Imperial Entanglements, the blog of an AHRC funded funded project in the Hispanic Studies Department of Warwick University. DR ANNA BRINKMAN Alliances between maritime Empires in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries were rarely harmonious; but only a few hold the distinction, of… Read More THE RELUCTANT ALLY: ANGLO-SPANISH SLAVE TRADE NEGOTIATIONS 1820-1821

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Sea Power, Alliances, and Diplomacy: British Naval Supremacy in the Great War Era

LOUIS HALEWOOD Louis is a current DPhil student at the University of Oxford. He holds an MA in History from the University of Calgary. Louis is co-organiser of the upcoming ‘Economic Warfare and the Sea’ Conference, to be held at All SoulS College in July 2017. A recording of the talk this post is drawn from is… Read More Sea Power, Alliances, and Diplomacy: British Naval Supremacy in the Great War Era

defenceresearch3 Comments

Do we need international history?

Defence-in-Depth is pleased to welcome Prof Joe Maiolo – Director of the Sir Michael Howard Centre for the History of War, and Professor of International History – to the blog. If you would be interested to contribute a guest post please contact the editors: Dr Amir Kamel and Dr David Morgan-Owen.  PROFESSOR JOE MAIOLO International history is not in vogue.… Read More Do we need international history?

defenceresearch1 Comment

1940-1942: THE FULCRUM OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY? Missing in History: Britain’s offer of Irish unity in 1940

This is the fourth in a series of posts connected to the King’s College Second World War Research Group’s ‘1940-1942: Fulcrum of the Twentieth Century Conference’, held at the JSCSC on June 1st.  DR KEVIN MATTHEWS Sifting through the voluminous histories of Britain’s 1940 stand against Nazi Germany, it is remarkable that, with a few notable exceptions, one… Read More 1940-1942: THE FULCRUM OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY? Missing in History: Britain’s offer of Irish unity in 1940

defenceresearchLeave a comment

UK in the Gulf: to Engage or not to engage?

DR DAVID ROBERTS On 1 November 2015, the UK Foreign Secretary Phillip Hammond inaugurated the beginning of works constructing the UK’s first permanent military base in Bahrain in the Persian Gulf since 1971 when the UK withdrew from the region. Using language that almost seemed to deliberately hark back to Britain’s colonial days in the… Read More UK in the Gulf: to Engage or not to engage?

defenceresearch3 Comments

US Primacy in World Politics and the Strategic ‘Pivot’ to Asia

This is the second in a series of posts from a recent research symposium organised by Dr Ellen Hallams on ‘The Reconfiguration of American Primacy in World Politics: Domestic and International Challenges.’ In this piece, Dr Hugo Meijer explores the US ‘pivot’ to Asia. DR HUGO MEIJER The Obama administration has launched a series of diplomatic,… Read More US Primacy in World Politics and the Strategic ‘Pivot’ to Asia

davidmorganowen3 Comments

The Worrying Talk About ‘Soft Power’

DR DAVID P HOUGHTON One of the most troubling concepts to appear on the scene in recent years is Joseph Nye’s much-popularized notion of ‘soft power’. Without a doubt, there is something rather vague that one can conveniently label soft power, defined as ‘the power to attract’. All nations have an appeal to someone, and… Read More The Worrying Talk About ‘Soft Power’

amirmkamel1 Comment

From the Archives: Versions of History in Two Collections: Assessing the Purpose and Conclusions of Compilers

ANNA BRINKMAN There are few moments more satisfying, or tantalizing, for an historian than looking through the catalogue of an archive and discovering that it holds vast repositories of material relevant to one’s research. . Though catalogues give an idea of the material contained in a collection, with varying degrees of accuracy, it is always… Read More From the Archives: Versions of History in Two Collections: Assessing the Purpose and Conclusions of Compilers

defenceresearch3 Comments

Is There a Place for the EU in International Security?

by DR BENJAMIN KIENZLE It’s a crowded field out there. During the last few decades, international institutions dealing with security and defence in one way or another have mushroomed all over the world. This ranges from highly technical associations of states known only to a small group of experts such as the Australia Group to… Read More Is There a Place for the EU in International Security?

defenceresearch1 Comment
#####EOF##### The Furlough Mutiny and the Struggle for Cassino in the Second World War – Defence-In-Depth

The Furlough Mutiny and the Struggle for Cassino in the Second World War

JONATHAN FENNELL

Jonathan Fennell is author of Fighting the People’s War: The British and Commonwealth Armies and the Second World War, which was published by Cambridge University Press in February 2019.

Three quarters of a century ago, soldiers of the British and Commonwealth Armies were embroiled in one of the iconic battles of the Second World War – the struggle to take the town of Cassino in Italy and the famous monastery that lay atop the imposing mountain that overlooked it. Historians have long argued about why the Allies failed on three occasions to unlock the German defences, before eventually breaking through to Rome. New research shows, for the first time, that it was not just matters on the front line that influenced the outcome of these great offensives, but issues far away on the home front – in New Zealand.

The Cassino Battles

Cassino guarded the entrance to the Liri Valley, the best route available to the Allied armies on their advance towards Rome in 1944. In the first battle of Cassino in January 1944, US and British forces had tried to prise the Germans out of their formidable defences through manoeuvre – involving a landing on the beaches of Anzio behind enemy lines. When that failed, the battle was handed over to 2ndNew Zealand and 4thIndian Divisions, two of the most experienced formations in the British and Commonwealth Armies in Italy. The second battle was, much like the first, a costly failure; the use of massed bombing from the air backfired when the monastery, as a consequence of this controversial course of action, was turned into a fortress of rubble by the Allied bombers.

For the third attempt, a new plan was devised. This time, rather than going straight for the monastery, 2nd New Zealand Division would capture the town itself and a height above it that would provide 4th Indian Division with a firm base from which to attack the ancient monastery. Major-General Alexander Galloway, in temporary command of 4th Indian Division, stressed the extent to which the success of this new plan was dependent on the New Zealanders. Unless 2nd New Zealand Division could protect theleft flank of the Indians by clearing Cassino town, his job would be ‘almost impossible’.

The assault, which went in on 15 March, was preceded by a massive aerial blitz; 514 aircraft dropped 1,140 tons of bombs on the town. Some 900 pieces of artillery added their fire in a prolonged barrage that allocated 4 or 5 tons of explosive for every German defender. At first, the assault met little opposition and casualties were light. Prisoners taken were stunned by the sheer weight of Allied firepower. However, progress slowed in the crater-strewn rubble, and when 4th Indian Division moved forward, Cassino town had not been cleared. As Galloway predicted, the attack failed. The speed and initiative necessary to overcome the formidable German defences had been sorely lacking.

What went wrong? The relative numbers of troops engaged at Third Cassino cannot, in itself, explain the performance of the New Zealanders – who, at the key point had a numerical advantage as high as perhaps 8-1. The plan, too, was perfectly workable. In fact, a large part of the cause of the setback lay 11,500 miles away from the maelstrom unfolding in the Apennines.

Home Front: The Furlough Mutiny

By 1943/4, the British and Commonwealth forces fighting in the Mediterranean were, according to one report, ‘tired, not only in body, but in spirit also’.At the start of August 1943, censorship reports on the mail of soldiers identified that many believed that their long period in action ‘morally entitle[d] them’ to leave. In light of the prevailing mood, the New Zealand Government decided to give 6,000 men in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF) furlough, or leave, back home. This equated to about 20 per cent of the New Zealand forces in theatre and a third of 2nd New Zealand Division.

The New Zealand Government had promised to avoid conflict about equality during the war; powers to conscript wealth were to equal those to conscript men. However, in reality, the war served to exacerbate inequalities. By 1943, there were 35,000 Grade ‘A’ men at home, fit enough to go overseas but who held jobs in ‘essential industry’. The 6,000 furlough men were stunned by this situation when they returned home and insisted, in the interest of fairness, that these men had to replace those who had already done their duty in the war in Europe. ‘No man twice, before every man once’ became the battle cry of the furlough men.

The Labour Government refused to bend to the furlough men’s wishes, leading to a revolt that resulted in only 13 per cent of the men returning to the Mediterranean. The ‘Furlough Mutiny’, as it became known, arguably represented the most severe outbreak of indiscipline in any British and Commonwealth force in both world wars.

Battlefront: Crisis at Cassino

The mutiny had two key consequences: the 2ndNew Zealand Division had to go into battle without a significant cohort of its most experienced veterans; and those that were left to fight suffered a serious crisis in morale. By the start of January 1944, the censors reported that there were ‘definite signs of war weariness and homesickness in almost 25% of the letters’ sent by the division. By mid-January, 50 per cent of letters had a ‘homesick’ tone. Ten per cent of letters showed a distinct sense of dissatisfaction at the unequal sacrifices being made in the war effort. A sergeant wrote:

It’s foolish to try and blink the fact that men over here are becoming more and more aware of the extent to which they have been ‘carrying the baby’ for years for lots of people at home.

By the beginning of the Second Battle of Cassino, there had been a ‘decided drop in morale’, and letters were ‘distinctly gloomy’. The prevailing conditions had ‘made the men “furlough conscious”’ with many letters referring to the mishandling of the scheme in New Zealand and the thousands of ‘essentials’ that could be used to replace them on the front line. In the run-up to the Third Battle of Cassino, the censors again noted a ‘drop [in morale] over the whole of the Div’.

The sickness rate in the division, a good barometer of morale, rose in the lead up to the third battle. Between embarkation for Italy and March 1944,the sickness rate for other ranks in 2ndNew Zealand Division increased by 96 per cent, that for officers by a remarkable 162 per cent. The battle exhaustion rate was also alarming. Whereas cases of battle exhaustion had accounted for 9 per cent of casualties in the heavy fighting in Italy in December 1943, they amounted to 34 per cent of casualties in February and 36 per cent in March 1944.

Turn Around: The Liberation of Rome

By any standards, this evidence indicates a catastrophic collapse in morale. Lieutenant-General Bernard Freyberg, the commander of 2ndNew Zealand Division, wrote to the New Zealand Prime Minister after the battle that, ‘I have come to the conclusion that the time may well be opportune for the complete withdrawal of 2NZEF’ to New Zealand. The success of the fourth battle of Cassino was in no small part built on this understanding.

In many ways, the British and Commonwealth Armies in Italy had finally reached the limits of endurance. The men, many of whom had been away from their families for between three and five years, longed for a break. Harold Alexander, the Commander of the Allied land forces in theatre, decided, therefore, to almost completely replace the fighting formations of his forces. Four British and Commonwealth divisions (two British, one Indian and one South African), two armoured brigades and one tank brigade were sent for from the Middle East. These were joined by the Polish Corps, two US infantry divisions, and two French infantry divisions. The new plan was to concentrate these formations on one side of the Apennines and attack the enemy with overwhelming force using almost completely fresh formations. It worked, leading to the liberation of the eternal city in June 1944. When the British and Commonwealth forces in Italy were most in need of a lift, when they had almost reached the very limit of their power and endurance, the power and scale of the Empire, and its allies, had played out with decisive effect.

Image: Third Phase of the Battle of Cassino, 11 – 18 May 1944: A low aerial view of the Monastery showing its complete destruction, via wikimedia commons.

Leave a Reply

Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in:

Gravatar
WordPress.com Logo

You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Google photo

You are commenting using your Google account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Twitter picture

You are commenting using your Twitter account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Facebook photo

You are commenting using your Facebook account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Cancel

Connecting to %s

%d bloggers like this:
#####EOF##### Ukraine – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Ukraine

The End of the Prague Spring – Fifty Years On

DR GERAINT HUGHES On the night of the 20th-21st August 1968, Soviet paratroopers and spetsnaz soldiers seized Ruzyne airport outside Prague, proceeding subsequently to take over key points in the Czechoslovak capital. The following day, 22 Soviet Army divisions – augmented by contingents from four other ‘fraternal’ Warsaw Pact states (Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic,… Read More The End of the Prague Spring – Fifty Years On

benkienzleLeave a comment

Ukraine’s Military Reform and the Conflict in the East

DR DEBORAH SANDERS One of the key challenges of military reform for any military organisation is the question ‘are we preparing for the right war?’ In my article ‘”The War We Want; The War That We Get”: Ukraine’s Military Reform and the Conflict in the East’, I examine this issue in the context of Ukrainian… Read More Ukraine’s Military Reform and the Conflict in the East

benkienzleLeave a comment

The Ukrainian Crisis: The Role of, and Implications for, Sub-State and Non-State Actors

DR EMMANUEL KARAGIANNIS and DR TRACEY GERMAN The conflict in eastern Ukraine has entered its fourth year with little sign of a negotiated resolution. Crimea has been absorbed into the Russian Federation and celebrated the third anniversary of its ‘integration’ in March 2017. To date, most scholarly analyses of the conflict have focused on the… Read More The Ukrainian Crisis: The Role of, and Implications for, Sub-State and Non-State Actors

benkienzleLeave a comment

Is Russia turning Ukraine into a Fragile State?

DR EMMANUEL KARAGIANNIS Following the Russian annexation of Crimea and the ongoing hostilities in eastern Ukraine, the Poroshenko government has struggled to revive the country’s economy. In 2015, the country’s economy was reduced by 12 percent and inflation reached 48.7 percent. IMF loans and EU financial packages have saved Ukraine from financial collapse. More importantly, Ukraine… Read More Is Russia turning Ukraine into a Fragile State?

defenceresearchLeave a comment

RUSSIA HYBRID WAR – A RESPONSE

ROBERT SEELY Over 18 months into Russia’s not-so-very-proxy, proxy war in Ukraine, there remains a thriving and fascinating debate over the tools of conflict that Russia uses, how one describes those tools and where Russia’s next ‘target’ may be. I was asked to respond to Rod Thornton’s recent blog on Russia.  In his excellent piece,… Read More RUSSIA HYBRID WAR – A RESPONSE

defenceresearch1 Comment

‘The Russians are coming!’ Well, not just yet…

by Dr ROD THORNTON There has been much sabre-rattling by Moscow recently. Russian military activity has increased markedly since the Maidan events in Ukraine in early 2014. Russian troops initially massed on Ukraine’s borders in what was ostensibly a scheduled military exercise, but which was also clearly a means of applying psychological pressure on Kiev.… Read More ‘The Russians are coming!’ Well, not just yet…

defenceresearch1 Comment

From Brussels with love? The European Union in conflict with Russia

This is the fourth in a series of posts from members of the Defence Studies Department’s Regional Security Research Centre, focusing on Russia and the implications of its increasingly assertive posture on the international stage. This post examines the implications of the crisis in Ukraine for EU-Russian relations. Later posts will explore implications for conventional… Read More From Brussels with love? The European Union in conflict with Russia

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### January 2018 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: January 2018

This is what communication failure looks like: Visuals at the North Korean border

DR NICHOLAS MICHELSEN, Director of Research, King’s Centre for Strategic Communications The following reflects on a recent trip to the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) between The Republic of Korea (ROK) and The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) conducted with War Studies Head of Department Professor Michael Rainsborough. We were in South Korea by invitation of… Read More This is what communication failure looks like: Visuals at the North Korean border

benkienzleLeave a comment

Current Russian and Chinese ways of warfare: the end (?) of military violence in peer-state conflict

DR ROD THORNTON When it comes to the winning of wars, it might be thought that military organisations today, just as they have always done, would be concentrating their efforts on how best to use kinetic force. Military violence is, after all, what militaries do. But not, it seems, any more – or at least… Read More Current Russian and Chinese ways of warfare: the end (?) of military violence in peer-state conflict

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Towards De-Militarising Military History

DR MATTHEW FORD This post builds upon an earlier debate on the politics of Britain’s military history and the state of modern military history. It re-frames that discussion in relation to a powerful recent critique of aspects of ‘military history’ in the History Workshop Journal, which will be expanded upon in a forthcoming article for… Read More Towards De-Militarising Military History

defenceresearch6 Comments

French Revolutionary War Theory: Conflict Between War and Peace

DR MIKE FINCH One of the most salient features of warfare during the present decade appears to be breakdown of the barrier between the state of war and the state of peace. As Chief of the General Staff Sir Nick Carter noted in his foreword to Army Doctrine Publication: Operations: ‘No longer is there a… Read More French Revolutionary War Theory: Conflict Between War and Peace

defenceresearch3 Comments
#####EOF##### The Elusion of Critique: On Developing Critical Approaches in Defence Discourse – Defence-In-Depth

The Elusion of Critique: On Developing Critical Approaches in Defence Discourse

MATT LEWIS

Matt Lewis is a PhD student at the Defence Studies Department and an Infantry Battalion Commander in the British Army. His research focuses on decolonising the concept of violence, with specific reference to Algeria and Critical Theory. He tweets in a personal capacity as @mattlewisfab.

Accounts from 20th Century graduates of NATO Staff Colleges depict a time when PME focused almost exclusively on honing specific procedural competences of direct relevance for Staff Officers destined for busy formation HQs. Staff Officers, it seemed, would be conditioned like battery hens for a highly focused series of tasks undertaken in steeply stacked hierarchies.

An appreciation of this historic approach came quite recently in a letter from Professor Jim Storr, published in BAR 163 (2015). Graduates of the Army’s Intermediate Command and Staff Course (ICSC(L)) and the joint Advanced Command and Staff Course (ACSC) were these days, he claimed “…simply not as thoroughly trained in operational staff work as they used to be…” and that “…professional training should not be infected by academic distractions…”.  I recall some time later, a quite withering response to Storr in the same journal from Maj Gen Julian Free (then Director General of the UK Defence Academy): outlining variously, the passing of time; the strategic nuance and the vast array of ‘customers’ for graduates of the Joint Services Command and Staff College. It was a quite eviscerating defence of the emerging ‘learning culture’ that has happily taken seed over the last decade.

Of course, there does remain a significantly procedural aspect to modern UK PME: we have retained a predisposition to interpretation through modelling; for estimate processes and conceptual paradigms. And quite appropriately so, because on courses (such as the UK single Service ICSCs) that act as a comprehensiveeducation for an entire career cohort, these devices provide a common framework for students with varying learning needs and professional experiences. They remain, in sum, a useful pedagogical foundation (breadth) from which to then develop individual specialisations (depth): a basis for the next set of questions beyond any sentimentality for the binaries of the (last) Cold War.

As we continue our transition into an effective learning organisation, we have come to place some primacy on the concept of critical thought and discourse. This agenda has gathered significant momentum since the Chilcot Inquiry’s focus on policy and decision-making cultures in Government; and on the imperative of ‘speaking truth to power’. And reassuringly, my recent experience of teaching on ICSC(L) for two years suggests that our critical capacities are indeed developing; buoyed, I suspect, by an approach shared with the US Army’s CGSC on educating for uncertainty.

Yet for all this progress, we are still to effectively extend our collective critical discourse much beyond the parameters of our pedagogical training models: ideas are ‘wargamed’, perspectives ‘Red Teamed’ but our conversation too readily descends into banal contrarianism and ‘what aboutery’.  The new imperative, in this post-truth information environment; this new Cold War where concepts and norms are so easily debased in a context of constant competition; is that our capacity for critique has asystematic rigour.  Here, the military blogosphere must shoulder some responsibility: in one breath urging the ‘virtuous insurgency’ of ideas whilst simultaneously closing the shop to academics, non-combatants and dissenters.

Symptomatically, the venerable Clausewitzian binary of nature and character stands unchallenged in this conceptual world: the holiest of cows that categorises everything in the sphere of conflict, and yet explains nothing.

Youri Cormier’s recent War as Paradox (2018) perhaps offers us a route out of this intellectual cul-de-sac: impossible, as it is, to not come away wondering if we have spent the last two centuries fixated on the wrong dead German. Cormier’s introduction of Hegel to an analysis of the inherent contradictions of conflict moves our discourse beyond the Clausewitzian fetish for the tactical how and what; to the ethical (and by inference critical) consideration of why?

As a proponent of dialectical thought, Hegel employed a cognitive framework far removed from what could be described as ‘identity’ or ‘classificatory’ thinking: in which (much like Clausewitz’s nature/character binary) instead of saying how something is, determines what categories something falls under, or of what it is an example or representative of.  Rather like a rose, which must be visualised, smelt and felt to be appreciated as a whole form, if the discrete characteristics of conflict are merely classified, they may be representative of something else entirely.

As one of numerous methods of critique, ‘dialectical’ thought avoids the cognitive traps of categorising the component features of a thing (a rose, an act of violence) by instead considering the processes, external connections, history and array of possible futures which are all contained within the thing. By focussing on these processes, changes and interactions of a real, concrete phenomenon, dialectic thought organises a reality for the purposes of study and presents them in a manner that it logical to people who do not necessarily think dialectically – the recipients of our ‘orders’, the media or Parliamentarians.[1]

As a basic framework Bertell Ollman describes ‘dialectical thinking’ as a mode of thought which involves the recognition and interpretation of four kinds of relations: identity/difference, the interpenetration of opposites, quantity/quality, and contradiction.  In contrast to the predictable analytical patterns of identity thinking; and the associated fixation on categories and classifications; the relations that define a dialectical conception of reality considers the effects and tensions imminent and eminent from the perceptible differences of one entity from another. However, the very perception of difference may fundamentally conceal several identical characteristics between two perceptively diverse entities.

This alludes to the second relationship; the interpenetration of opposites.  Evocative of the famous terrorist/freedom fighter analogy in COIN, the interpenetration of opposites implies a perspectival element that recognises that things appear very different depending who is looking at them. Therefore, nothing is uniquely as it may seem in a particular place and time; viewed in another way, from another physical or perspectival position, a single entity or process may appear entirely the opposite from when it was previously beheld.

The tension between issues of quantity and quality are as familiar to academic students as they are to military campaigners.  Analysis of change in quantity/quality relations brings into focus the before and after aspects of a development.[2] For instance, what proportion of the population must be radicalised for an uprising to assume the characteristics of an insurgency? How many military fatalities render the incidence of operational casualty a strategic failure? What scale of ‘collateral damage’ is tolerable or legally justifiable within the parameters of the Law of Armed Conflict?

And what of contradiction? Perhaps we need only recall that poignant depiction of the gathering on General Browning’s balcony at the end of A Bridge Too Far:

“That’s it then. We’re pulling them out: it was Nijmegen…”

“…It was the single road getting to Nijmegen…”

“…No, it was after Nijmegen…”

“…And the fog…in England.”

It was, of course, a varying combination of all these frictions. Because as an inherently human phenomenon, conflict and warfare exist in a reality constructed by the fusion of individual subjectivities: not all of which can be easily reconciled. Contradiction is therefore as much part of our ‘battle picture’ as the complementary information sources our biases tend to draw us toward.

“What now happens…” Storr objected in his letter of 2015, “…is that highly educated but relatively young academics mark the writing of staff college students…students learn to write academese”. So, what then is the relevance of a framework such as dialectics to our operational output? Is it just, as many would contend, self-indulgent intellectual noodling?

To invoke the comfort of my subjective experience, I would point out that in the three staff appointments I held as a Major – in Policy and Operational HQs and against shifting operational and political contexts – I would be routinely asked to return my analysis to ‘first principles’ or to ‘reframe my assumptions’. In effect, I was being asked to fundamentally challenge the epistemic basis of what I thought I knew. I would also emphasise that I held these appointments at a time before a Parliamentary Committee sat to determine the level of Russian interference in our elections; before Robert Mueller began his investigations in the US; and before the new currency of ‘fake news’.

If today we take the threat of ‘constant competition’ seriously, our capacity for critical thinking must not simply be a blogger’s cliché, but routine military behaviour.

Image via flickr.

 

[1]Bertell Ollman. Dialectical Investigations. London and New York; Routledge. pg. 10-11

[2]Ollman Ibidpg. 13-14

Leave a Reply

Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in:

Gravatar
WordPress.com Logo

You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Google photo

You are commenting using your Google account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Twitter picture

You are commenting using your Twitter account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Facebook photo

You are commenting using your Facebook account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Cancel

Connecting to %s

%d bloggers like this:
#####EOF##### Future War – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Future War

The Impact of the Organisational Mind-set on the Perception of the Future in the Armed Forces

Dr Bence Nemeth, DR Nicholas Dew, Dr Mie Augier Armed forces have always been attempting to foresee threats and security challenges to figure out what kind of tasks they will likely encounter in the future. Thus, anticipating the future and having an idea about what might come helps to provide assumptions and starting points for… Read More The Impact of the Organisational Mind-set on the Perception of the Future in the Armed Forces

benkienzleLeave a comment

General Sir John Hackett’s The Third World War: Or, How to Think about a Future War with Russia Today

DR JEFF MICHAELS In the vast majority of cases, scenarios of future war have rarely come to pass as originally envisioned. At least two inter-related reasons can account for this. First, due to the incredibly large number of variables to consider – geopolitical, technical, human, etc. – it is simply impossible to calculate how they… Read More General Sir John Hackett’s The Third World War: Or, How to Think about a Future War with Russia Today

defenceresearch2 Comments
#####EOF##### October 2017 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: October 2017

How do states without defence forces defend themselves? An examination of security and sovereignty in small states

TYSON SARA is a senior official with the Australian Defence Department and is a 2017 graduate of the Royal College of Defence Studies. The post is based on his MA dissertation. All views expressed in it are the author’s own and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Australian Defence Department or the Royal… Read More How do states without defence forces defend themselves? An examination of security and sovereignty in small states

benkienzleLeave a comment

Liberal Interventions and the Relevance of Imperial History

DR CHRIS TRIPODI When it comes to the subjects of war, conflict and strategy there are historians (Max Hastings, Anthony Beevor, and that tall posh bloke off the BBC) and then there are historians’ historians; a plethora of otherwise invisible but powerful intellects quietly going about their business, helping construct our understanding of the past,… Read More Liberal Interventions and the Relevance of Imperial History

defenceresearch3 Comments

America, Russia, Britain, and Germany: Second World War Mobilisation in Global Perspective

Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Over the coming weeks, we will be posting entries written by some of the conference’s presenters. DR OLIVER WERNER Dr Werner is a Post-Doctoral… Read More America, Russia, Britain, and Germany: Second World War Mobilisation in Global Perspective

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Renegades in Malaya: Indian Volunteers of the Japanese, F. Kikan

Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective‘. Over the coming weeks, we will be posting blog articles written by some of the conference’s presenters. KEVIN NOLES This post examines the recruitment,… Read More Renegades in Malaya: Indian Volunteers of the Japanese, F. Kikan

benkienzleLeave a comment

British naval aviation in World War II: Escort Carriers

DR TIM BENBOW The Royal Navy pioneered the use of air power at sea, from bases ashore and from aircraft carriers, during the First World War.  It lost this lead during the interwar period due to a range of factors including limited spending on defence and an unclear national strategy, exacerbated by the Navy losing… Read More British naval aviation in World War II: Escort Carriers

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Italian Influences on British Imperial Defence & Grand Strategy, 1935-43

DR RICHARD HAMMOND Formulating grand strategy is an extraordinarily complex issue for a state. To understand the process, you have to assess not just that state’s own interests and the variety of external factors exerting influence on them, but also their perception of these influences. This was certainly the case for Britain during the interwar… Read More Italian Influences on British Imperial Defence & Grand Strategy, 1935-43

defenceresearch2 Comments
#####EOF##### January 2019 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: January 2019

Jan Smuts and the Anglo-American World Order

DR JOHN MITCHAM John is Assistant Professor of History at Duquesne University. He is an historian of the British Empire, with a particular focus on settler colonialism in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. His book, Race and Imperial Defence in the British World 1870-1914 (Cambridge University Press, 2016), examined the cultural links between Britain and… Read More Jan Smuts and the Anglo-American World Order

defenceresearch1 Comment

Games, Strategy, and the Conflict-Cooperation Spectrum

DR DAVID BLAGDEN David is Lecturer in International Security and Strategy at the University of Exeter’s Strategy and Security Institute. This post is intended to summarise and promote themes from his just-published book (co-edited with Mark de Rond), Games: Conflict, Competition, and Cooperation (Cambridge University Press, 2019). You can follow him on Twitter here. Why plug a… Read More Games, Strategy, and the Conflict-Cooperation Spectrum

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### ‘Your Boy’s Future’ – Apprentice Training and Social Mobility in the Early Royal Air Force – Defence-In-Depth

‘Your Boy’s Future’ – Apprentice Training and Social Mobility in the Early Royal Air Force

SOPHY GARDNER

Sophy Gardner is a PhD student at the University of Exeter, and a former RAF Wing Commander of twenty-years experience. You can follow her on Twitter @sophygardner

In many ways, the newly created RAF’s approach to the resource and recruitment challenges of the early inter-war period was highly modern, presaging later educational reforms such as academic selection to grammar schools and promoting meritocratic principles long before Michael Young’s dystopian critique coined the term ‘meritocracy’.[1] While the education of officers in staff colleges and in preparation for command attracts much contemporary attention, and some historical analysis, the recruitment, education, and opportunities provided to non-commissioned airmen in the early days of the RAF provide a complementary case study of a progressive and creative solution designed at a time of economic and political difficulty for the young force.

The focus on training, and attracting the brightest boys to the junior service was a central pillar of the RAF’s post-war plan. The RAF’s Chief, Hugh Trenchard, singled out the training of men (as opposed to officers) as: ‘The most difficult problem of all in the formation of this force’.[2] In the challenging financial climate of the time, he chose to target his limited resources not on new technology, but on the less glamorous attributes of buildings, training, and personnel. Trenchard firmly favoured foundations over aircraft and squadrons. Apprentice training for boys was to form a key part of the new RAF’s identity, with a scheme that ran, in a form recognisable from its roots in 1919, until 1993.

In fact, these plans contained significantly more than the seeds for the future growth of a skilled workforce and a fundamental building block of the service: it also had a strong and important public-facing aspect to it, offering a good education for young boys from less privileged backgrounds, ensuring them solid prospects for later civilian life. Additionally, from the outset it consciously promoted social mobility within the service, the realisation of which benefited the RAF of the Second World War and beyond, as much as it changed the lives of the many individuals who made the journey from secondary school to senior leadership.

The age of enlistment was from fifteen to sixteen and a half years old: aimed at attracting school leavers who might be enticed by a career in aviation, with its glamorous associations with hero pilots. Each course lasted three years and consisted of a remarkably comprehensive educational syllabus, as well as core vocational skills for future aircraft technicians, military training, and the inculcation of a particular and self-confident RAF identity. RAF Halton was to become the flagship training centre of the post-war RAF, home to No 1 School of Technical Training (Boys).

ENTRY

The Air Ministry approached the challenges of attracting sufficient applicants by reaching out to those geographically and economically distant from the opportunities the training offered. Working with Local Education Authorities (LEAs), who provided vital local assistance and knowledge to the centralised bureaucracy of the post-war RAF, the Air Ministry devised a system in which boys were nominated by their LEA for examinations held locally. The express intention was to make the process as accessible as possible, devised to be ‘brought as far as possible into line with the ordinary work of schools so that a boy can take it without special preparation’ and without the need to travel far. The Air Ministry wanted to make sure it captured able boys even if their parents could not afford ‘the expense of sending them to some distant examination centre’.[3]

This explicit effort to make the apprentice scheme as accessible as possible to ‘ordinary’ boys in state-funded education would have been an admirable attempt at improving social mobility even without the additional plan to offer the top graduating apprentices the opportunity to progress to cadetships at the RAF College Cranwell, for officer training. This emerged as a key element of the scheme at its earliest stages, and was refined and developed during the 1920s.

CADETSHIPS

Treasury files reveal the discussions between the Air Ministry and the Treasury, which led to concrete financial support for the scheme. The Air Ministry wrote to the Secretary of the Treasury in 1920 that the existing regulations included ‘a suggestion that boys who complete the course of training satisfactorily may be offered cadetships in the Royal Air Force, but this offer will be meaningless unless it is accompanied by a remission of the fees ordinarily payable by the cadets’. The fees at Cranwell (approximately £75 a year) were well out of the reach of ordinary boys from families who could not afford train fares or school fees. The letter went on to say that the Air Council ‘trusts that Their Lordships will give favourable consideration to the proposals contained in this letter. They feel that under modern conditions considerable facilities for promotion from the ranks are required’.[4]Minute sheets in the files then record an internal discussion between Mr Pemberton and Mr Pinsent, of the Treasury, with Mr Pemberton offering the view:

This seems to be the question of how far we can go in the direction of “democratization” of the forces. […] I think it is not unreasonable to say that the RAF is altogether a more democratic force than the Army or Navy. It is clear from 39947/19 that the senior officers of the Army are desirous of adhering to the aristocratic tradition as far as possible and from what I know of the Navy their views are the same. At any rate I think it very unlikely that they would want to send boys of the Air Mechanics class to Dartmouth.

In reply, Mr Pinsent pointed out that other documentation showed the Navy also aspired to be ‘democratic’ and he confirmed that the Treasury had already sanctioned a scheme ‘even more generous’ (financially one assumes from the Treasury viewpoint) for Naval candidates for Dartmouth.[5]The Treasury concurred with the Air Ministry’s petition and wrote to support up to twelve cadetships a year, exempting the successful candidates from fees and from payments for uniforms and books, as well as giving grants for outfits and camp kit.

The apprentices who won cadetships performed well at Cranwell, despite their very different backgrounds from other cadets: testament, it is argued, to the breadth and depth of the apprenticeship syllabus. One of Halton’s alumni who went on to progress to air rank was Air Marshal Sir Kenneth Porter. He had applied for an apprenticeship as a result of being orphaned with no financial means at the age of fourteen. His recollections include his specific praise of the curriculum:

The syllabus covered mechanics, mechanical drawing and a general subject titled English. This last subject covered amongst other things a broad coverage of the history of civilisations starting at the Stone Age and finishing with the organisation of local and Parliamentary Government, and the reading of Shaw’s Plays, it was not only most interesting but taught what few, if any, schools taught. […] Looking back I think that the excellence of the education was the reason that the many Apprentices who were commissioned during the war did so well and reached high rank. I found when I became a cadet at Cranwell that I had already done more mathematics than the syllabus required and the rest of the education course gave me no difficulty.[6]

A report by the Board of Education on Apprentice Training later in the 1930s shows that teaching the arts and humanities, alongside trades skills and sciences, had continued, ensuring the boys were in a position to compete successfully as trainee officers at Cranwell alongside the majority who had a public school education.[7]

One winner of a cadetship was Frank Whittle, later Group Captain and father of the jet engine, who in an article for the Halton Magazine recorded: ‘it is worthy of record that the six of us of the September [19]23 entry who became Flight Cadets took six out of the first seven places on passing out of the R.A.F. College’.[8]The Cranwell Character Book, which recorded details of RAF College Cadets, showed that airmen apprentices came top of the officers’ course on seventeen out of thirty-two courses on which there were cadets (and while constituting on average only 10.5% of the attendees).[9]

CONCLUSION

The factors pertinent to the RAF developing the apprentice scheme were, as with so much of the RAF’s early post-war development, a confluence of needs and aspirations that came together in a modern and novel form. The RAF needed to cement its identity and develop a cadre of men who were RAF to the core, with no previous allegiance to the other services. Recruitment of skilled workers was inadequate for the needs of the service and so attracting teenage boys, with whom the populist cultural and symbolic appeals of aircraft and aviation were probably most effective, gave the RAF a ready pool of applicants. Demonstrating a desire to ‘open doors’ to candidates who might not otherwise be able to apply for an apprenticeship, and offering a comprehensive further education, afforded the RAF additional reputational prestige.

The opportunity for cadetships with access, therefore, to an overt form of social mobility was innovative and neoteric. It also stood in contrast with the post-war attitudes of the other services. The War Office, facing shortages of skilled men in various wireless trades, resorted to public advertisements and offers of £100 bounties to join, yet after fifteen months they had attracted only 244 out of the required 1250 men.[10] In the same year, interest in the boys apprentice scheme was bearing dividends: ‘a very good type of boy is being obtained. In July last there were some 1,100 applicants for 500 vacancies’.[11]

The Second World War is the key backdrop against which the achievements of apprentice training can be viewed. The training scheme provided a large cohort of the RAF with a firm sense of identity forged through a shared experience of a long, testing, and intense training process. These early recruits would form the backbone of the wartime RAF, as aircraft technicians, sergeant aircrew, and commissioned officers. The scheme was a success from the start and between 1923 and 1958 over 20% of the boys who graduated were granted commissions; 80% of the rest became senior Non-Commissioned Officers. The active efforts of the RAF to find talented recruits from across the country, nurture and educate them to a high standard, and offer them the opportunity to reach the very highest ranks of the service, were ahead of their time and deserve their place in the history of military education.

[1]Michael Young, The Rise of the Meritocracy: 1870-2033; an Essay on Education and Equality, (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1976).

[2]Cmd 467, An Outline of the Scheme for the Permanent Organization of the Royal Air Force, 11 December 1919, copy available in [T]he [N]ational [A]rchives, AIR 1/17/15/1/84.

[3]TNA, Air 2/148, Boy Mechanics, Royal Air Force, letter to unnamed official from Educational Adviser for Air Commodore Director of Training and Organisation, 9 May 1921.

[4]TNA T 161/58/9, letter from McAnally to Bairstow, 22 September 1920.

[5]TNA T 161/58/9, minute sheet recording discussion between Mr Pemberton and Mr Pinsent, 8-16 October 1920.

[6]Trenchard Museum Archive, ‘One of Trenchards Brats’ [sic], Air Marshal Sir Kenneth Porter Recollections, undated, unaccessioned, 8-9.

[7]TNA ED 114/509, Report of Inspection of the Training Scheme for Aircraft Apprentices, Royal Air Force, Cranwell’, 1936, included a recommendation limiting history teaching to ‘19thcentury History and be continued to the present day. This plan would allow more time to be given to the remaining parts of the syllabus which could be dealt with more fully.’

[8]Trenchard Museum Archive, ‘Per Ardua Ad Astra Superna Petimus Perseventia’, Group Captain Whittle, Halton Magazine, 1944.

[9]RAF Cranwell Archive, CRN/D/2011/71, RAF College Character Book, from Fin Monahan, ‘The Origins of the Organisational Culture of the Royal Air Force’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Birmingham, 2018), p181.

[10]RAF Museum, Personal Papers of Lord Trenchard, MFC 76/1/100 2 of 3, letter from Air Commodore Game to Trenchard, 24 October 1921.

[11]TNA, Air 8/42, Memorandum on Air Expenditure prepared by the Air Ministry for the Committee of National Expenditure, October 1921.

Image: Lord Trenchard inspecting apprentices at RAF Halton at a passing out parade, 1927, via wikimedia commons.

Leave a Reply

Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in:

Gravatar
WordPress.com Logo

You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Google photo

You are commenting using your Google account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Twitter picture

You are commenting using your Twitter account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Facebook photo

You are commenting using your Facebook account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Cancel

Connecting to %s

%d bloggers like this:
#####EOF##### SDSR – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: SDSR

2017 – the Year of the Royal Navy: time to get real?

Professor Andrew M Dorman and Professor Matthew R H Uttley Centre for British Defence and Security Studies As we entered 2017 the Ministry of Defence earmarked 2017 as the ‘year of the Royal Navy (RN)’. In the press release that accompanied the announcement key milestones for 2017 were highlighted, including the new aircraft carrier HMS… Read More 2017 – the Year of the Royal Navy: time to get real?

defenceresearch5 Comments

The British Army’s role in defending NATO’s Eastern Border

DR WARREN CHIN This post summarised some of the evidence Dr Chin gave to the House of Commons Defence Select Committee on the British Army and SDSR 15 in October. A recording  of the session is available here. SDSR 15 acknowledged the increased threat posed by Russia to NATO and made clear its intention to deter any future Russian… Read More The British Army’s role in defending NATO’s Eastern Border

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Understanding a different ‘holy trinity’: procurement and British defence policy, part 3: Time

DR ED HAMPSHIRE My previous two blogposts on the procurement trinity covered capability and cost. Many people see the problems of defence procurement as a trade-off between one of these two factors or the other, but there is also the third forgotten element: time. Delays in projects can affect the other two elements of the… Read More Understanding a different ‘holy trinity’: procurement and British defence policy, part 3: Time

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Understanding a different ‘holy trinity’: procurement and British defence policy, part 2: Cost

DR ED HAMPSHIRE In my previous post I discussed the problems faced in defence procurement deriving from one of the members of the procurement trinity: ‘capability’. This post will now turn to the second element of this trinity: cost. It is the cost escalation of projects that unsurprisingly most exercises the Treasury when it reviews… Read More Understanding a different ‘holy trinity’: procurement and British defence policy, part 2: Cost

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Challenges for British Strategy and Defence Policy in 2016

DR TIM BENBOW British strategy and defence policy face a number of challenges over the coming 12 months. Some of these require close cooperation with allies, notably devising a common response to an increasingly assertive Russia whilst also formulating a workable approach to the Syria conflict (and the problems associated with it such as migration)… Read More Challenges for British Strategy and Defence Policy in 2016

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Back to the Future? British Air Power and Two Defence Reviews 2010-15

Dr David Jordan When the Prime Minister sat down in the House of Commons after concluding his presentation of the 2015 SDSR, he may have allowed himself a smile of satisfaction at the largely positive response it received, and not just from his own back-benchers. This may have become a grin by the time the… Read More Back to the Future? British Air Power and Two Defence Reviews 2010-15

defenceresearch4 Comments
#####EOF##### Vietnam War – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Vietnam War

Stuck in Endless Preliminaries: Vietnam and the Battle of the Paris Peace Table, November 1968-January 1969

DR JEFFREY MICHAELS In the anti-war film Go Tell the Spartans, set in Vietnam in 1964, the conflict is described as ‘going nowhere, just around and around in circles’. Perhaps a slightly more accurate representation can be found in the work of Franz Kafka, such as Der Prozeß, in which his protagonist seems to make… Read More Stuck in Endless Preliminaries: Vietnam and the Battle of the Paris Peace Table, November 1968-January 1969

benkienzleLeave a comment

Nixon the Nation-Builder? Strategic Understanding in the Vietnam War

DR ANDREW GAWTHORPE A new book from Evan Thomas reminds us – as if we needed it – of the peculiarities of President Richard Nixon. Brilliant, reclusive, and disturbed, Nixon ought to defy caricature even though he has often been the subject of it. His foreign policy partnership with Henry Kissinger reflected this. By marginalizing… Read More Nixon the Nation-Builder? Strategic Understanding in the Vietnam War

defenceresearch1 Comment

Behavioural Strategy: Exploring the Psychology of Strategy

by DR KENNETH PAYNE Behavioural economics is all the rage these days. Thanks in large part to the Nobel prize winning research of Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, economics has discovered some powerful insights about how humans really behave when it comes to making life choices. That is really behave, as opposed to the dominant approach hitherto, which was to assume… Read More Behavioural Strategy: Exploring the Psychology of Strategy

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Nation-Building: A Forgotten Aspect of the Vietnam War

by MR ANDREW GAWTHORPE While the debate over American strategy in the Vietnam War has been long and bitter, it has also been strangely constricted. This stems in part from the fact it has largely been an anguished dialogue among Americans searching for the reasons which underlay their nation’s defeat. This means that a lot… Read More Nation-Building: A Forgotten Aspect of the Vietnam War

defenceresearch1 Comment
#####EOF##### About – Defence-In-Depth

About

Welcome to Defence-in-Depth, the research blog of the Defence Studies Department, King’s College London, offering in-depth contemporary and historical analysis of the issues behind defence.

The Defence Studies Department is based at the Joint Services Command and Staff College of the UK Defence Academy in Shrivenham, Wiltshire. It is an interdisciplinary department comprising a mixture of political scientists, international relations and regional security specialists, strategic studies experts, as well as military, naval, diplomatic, and imperial historians. We educate officers in the British and international armed forces and other governmental departments related to defence.

This position gives us a unique perspective on the issues behind defence. Defence-in-Depth showcases the latest research conducted by members of the department and guests, offers unique comment and analysis on news and events that dominate defence, as well as commentary on issues within professional military education. It also offers articles that explore the historical background to many of these topics, as well as subjects relevant to the world around us today.

Defence Research

The Defence Studies Department is a world-leading research institution, blending disciplines from the social sciences and the arts and humanities. Defence-in-Depth showcases the latest research by members of the department, as well that of select guests.

Contemporary Analysis

One of the aims of Defence-in-Depth is to offer cutting-edge analysis of news and events that impact on the defence agenda. These articles offer comment on the background to these stories, provide all-important context, and give unique perspectives.

Professional Military Education

The reason the Defence Studies Department exists is to provide education to professional military personnel and King’s College London is a world leader in this area. Defence-in-Depth showcases how our cutting-edge research can influence professional military education, theory, and practice.

The Historical Perspective

Many of the stories that dominate defence today have long-term causes or are themselves rooted in history. History provides important understanding of the political, social, and cultural factors that shape the world today. Defence-in-Depth provides unique and cutting-edge historical analysis that adds to our knowledge of the forces that drive contemporary events.

Interaction

Defence-in-Depth provides the opportunity for interaction with world-leading researchers who are shaping the debates within in the field of defence studies. Readers should feel free to comment on any posts on the site, and authors will endeavour to respond.

Defence-in-Depth is administered by Dr. David Morgan-Owen (@dmorganowen).

Research from the Defence Studies Department is also highlighted on:
– Twitter: @DefenceResearch
– LinkedIn: Defence In Depth
– Facebook: Defence Studies Department Research

The posts reflect the opinions of the authors, not those of King’s College London, the UK Ministry of Defence, or the Defence Academy of the United Kingdom.

 

5 thoughts on “About”

  1. I normally am fairly up on all the blogs, and do keep an eye out on happenings at DSD where I worked from 2000 – 2007, but somehow missed this blog! Its excellent and I shall refer my postgraduate students here at Bond University, Queensland, to consider it a good source on strategy and also on European security.

    I’ve tried to set up a blog here for the International Relations team at Bond, with a focus on Asian security issues, but I did not get huge support, and Bond University management wanted it as an internal thing for access within the University only (PR risk aversion) – kind of pointless doing that! So this year I will probably set up my own blog, and link it in to all the relevant social media. Keep an eye out.

    But glad to see DSD is much more clued up on the importance of social media and blogs. I’m a bit envious! Good work all.

    Malcolm

    Like

    1. Thanks for your comments Malcolm! We are pleased that you have found Defence-in-Depth useful. We believe it is a good reflection of the wide range of interesting and high-calibre research going on in the Defence Studies Department at the moment. Let us know when you get your blog up and running!

      Liked by 1 person

Leave a Reply

Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in:

Gravatar
WordPress.com Logo

You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Google photo

You are commenting using your Google account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Twitter picture

You are commenting using your Twitter account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Facebook photo

You are commenting using your Facebook account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Cancel

Connecting to %s

%d bloggers like this:
#####EOF##### Artificial Intelligence – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Artificial Intelligence

Breaking: Opening salvo fired in coming war with machines

Dr. Ken Payne DeepMind, the world’s leading Artificial Intelligence outfit, has released a remarkable new study with implications for those of us interested in war, cooperation, and the strategic ramifications of AI. You can read and watch it here. In short, their agents demonstrated the ability to relate socially in a competitive environment. When resources… Read More Breaking: Opening salvo fired in coming war with machines

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Civil Conflict – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Civil Conflict

Channelling Fanon: What Childish Gambino tells us about Violence and Urban Space

MATT LEWIS What is violence? An instrumental means to an end? Or the end itself? Is violence the visceral embodiment of a long held grievance, rather than a tool to change the aggrieving behaviour? Earlier this month, Childish Gambino’s ‘This is America’ presented a gut-wrenching visualisation of randomised and anonymised violence in urban America: one… Read More Channelling Fanon: What Childish Gambino tells us about Violence and Urban Space

benkienzle1 Comment

The Ukrainian Crisis: The Role of, and Implications for, Sub-State and Non-State Actors

DR EMMANUEL KARAGIANNIS and DR TRACEY GERMAN The conflict in eastern Ukraine has entered its fourth year with little sign of a negotiated resolution. Crimea has been absorbed into the Russian Federation and celebrated the third anniversary of its ‘integration’ in March 2017. To date, most scholarly analyses of the conflict have focused on the… Read More The Ukrainian Crisis: The Role of, and Implications for, Sub-State and Non-State Actors

benkienzleLeave a comment

Syria’s ceasefire and the challenges of war termination

DR CHRIS TUCK The current ceasefire in Syria is under significant pressure and claims of local violations continue to grow. It has, at least, succeeded in reducing the scale of the fighting, which is welcome. The war has, since 2011, led to the deaths of over 300,000 people and displaced internally, or made refugees of,… Read More Syria’s ceasefire and the challenges of war termination

defenceresearch1 Comment

LIBYA: SOME CONTEXT BEHIND THE ONGOING UNREST

This post is based on a paper presented at an event organised by the Defence Culture and Languages Centre (DCLC) and King’s College London’s Regional Security Research Centre (RSRC), titled ‘Regional Study Day: North Africa’, which took place on 21 October 2015. By DR AMIR M KAMEL After four years since Libya first experienced its own… Read More LIBYA: SOME CONTEXT BEHIND THE ONGOING UNREST

amirmkamelLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Terrorism – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Terrorism

‘TOTAL NATIONAL STRATEGY’: A CAUTIONARY TALE

DR GERAINT HUGHES Concepts of grand strategy generally stress the requirement of governments to outline clear strategic goals, and to ensure that all elements of national power are co-ordinated by ministers and senior officials (civil service and military) to achieve them. In recent history, one state achieved the apparent success of devising a ‘total’ strategy… Read More ‘TOTAL NATIONAL STRATEGY’: A CAUTIONARY TALE

defenceresearch2 Comments

Were the Attacks in Paris and Brussels an Intelligence Failure?

Dr. Emmanuel Karagiannis During 2015-2016, ISIS cells and ISIS-inspired lone wolves launched a series of terrorist attacks against European cities. On 13 November 2015, a group of ISIS assailants launched coordinated attacks on civilian targets in central Paris. They killed 132 people and injured 352. It appears that there were three teams of nine gunmen. Three… Read More Were the Attacks in Paris and Brussels an Intelligence Failure?

defenceresearch2 Comments

Palestine 1945-48: the Information Campaign and the Limits of Influence

DR KATE UTTING In the past information, influence or non-kinetic psychological aspects of conflict had a supporting function to the physical, kinetic aspects; today it is seen as central. Militaries have done ‘influence’ for years, but there is a dominant view that in the current information environment all actions, deeds and words are scrutinised in… Read More Palestine 1945-48: the Information Campaign and the Limits of Influence

defenceresearch1 Comment

Saudi Arabia and its anti-terror alliance

DR DAVID ROBERTS On 14 December 2015, Saudi Arabia’s Deputy Crown Prince and Defence Minister, Mohammed bin Salman al-Saud, called a press conference and announced the formation of a new thirty-four nation-strong Islamic military alliance that would be dedicated to countering the threat of terrorism around the wider Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region.… Read More Saudi Arabia and its anti-terror alliance

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Political, Religious, and Everyday Allure of Islamic State’s Utopianism

This is the second in a series of posts to come out of the ‘Rise of the Islamic State (IS): Ideology, Strategy, and Implications’ roundtable organized by Regional Security Research Centre on 4 February 2015. Subsequent posts will come out on Wednesdays and will cover topics such as the motivations for joining IS and the… Read More The Political, Religious, and Everyday Allure of Islamic State’s Utopianism

defenceresearch1 Comment
#####EOF##### EU Vote – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: EU Vote

No news is good news? The field of security & defence one year after the Brexit referendum

DR BEN KIENZLE On 23 June 2016, the British people voted to leave the European Union (EU). This has been widely seen as one of the most important strategic decisions of the UK in a generation. In the immediate aftermath of the EU referendum, Ellen Hallams and Ben Kienzle have brought together researchers from King’s… Read More No news is good news? The field of security & defence one year after the Brexit referendum

benkienzleLeave a comment

European Strategic Autonomy after the Brexit

PROF SVEN BISCOP Prof. Biscop is the Director of the Europe in the World Programme at the Egmont – Royal Institute for International Relations in Brussels, and a Professor at Ghent University. He is an Honorary Fellow of the European Security and Defence College. The EU Global Strategy for Foreign and Security Policy (EUGS) is one… Read More European Strategic Autonomy after the Brexit

defenceresearch1 Comment

Brexit and International Security: A Guide for Undecided Voters

DR BEN KIENZLE The most recent polls for the referendum on Britain leaving the European Union suggest that neither the ‘Brexit’ nor the ‘Bremain’ camps have mustered the necessary support to win today. The still undecided voters will certainly play a crucial role. So, how should these voters take their decision? The most obvious approach… Read More Brexit and International Security: A Guide for Undecided Voters

defenceresearchLeave a comment

A Capital Mistake: Evidence and Defence in the Brexit Debates

Professor Matthew Uttley & Dr. Benedict Wilkinson In one of his more exasperated moments, Sherlock Holmes turns to his long-term companion, Dr. Watson and chides him for his impatience, saying ‘It is a capital mistake to theorize before you have all the evidence. It biases the judgment.’ Strong words they may be, but wise ones… Read More A Capital Mistake: Evidence and Defence in the Brexit Debates

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Second World War – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Second World War

Jan Smuts and the Anglo-American World Order

DR JOHN MITCHAM John is Assistant Professor of History at Duquesne University. He is an historian of the British Empire, with a particular focus on settler colonialism in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. His book, Race and Imperial Defence in the British World 1870-1914 (Cambridge University Press, 2016), examined the cultural links between Britain and… Read More Jan Smuts and the Anglo-American World Order

defenceresearch1 Comment

Civil Resettlement Units – a lesson from the past

DR CLARE MAKEPEACE Clare is an historian, writer, lecturer and consultant in the cultural history of the First and Second World Wars. Her debut book Captives of War. British Prisoners of War in Europe in the Second World War was published in 2017, and she holds the position of Honorary Research Fellow at Birkbeck, University of London. You can… Read More Civil Resettlement Units – a lesson from the past

defenceresearchLeave a comment

An Open Secret: British Open Source Intelligence during the Second World War

DR BEN WHEATLEY Ben Wheatley is a Honorary Research Fellow in the School of History, University of East Anglia and a former Teaching Fellow at the Defence Studies Department, King’s College London. His 2017 book, British Intelligence and Hitler’s Empire in the Soviet Union, 1941-1945 published by Bloomsbury Academic will be available in paperback from August 2018. You… Read More An Open Secret: British Open Source Intelligence during the Second World War

defenceresearch1 Comment

SWWRG Conference Report – 2018 The Peoples’ War? The Second World War in Socio-Political Perspective

DR ALEX WILSON Editorial Note: On 14-15 June 2018, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘The Peoples’ War? The Second World War in Socio-Political Perspective.’ Over the coming weeks, we will be posting short blog articles written by some of the conference’s presenters. In this first post,… Read More SWWRG Conference Report – 2018 The Peoples’ War? The Second World War in Socio-Political Perspective

defenceresearchLeave a comment

History on Film: Entertainment or Accuracy?

DR TIM BENBOW  Warning: contains spoilers for the film ‘Dunkirk’, and unashamedly subjective opinions on several other films… Historians are, I understand, notorious for offering their opinions (sought or otherwise) on the accuracy of films or television shows that touch on real events.  Astonishingly, these informed views are not always welcomed by the people watching… Read More History on Film: Entertainment or Accuracy?

defenceresearch6 Comments

The Role of Neutrality in the Pacific Theatre of the Second World War

Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Defence in Depth has been crossposting some of the proceedings of the conference, of which you can find more here. PASCA LOTTAZ Pascal Lottaz… Read More The Role of Neutrality in the Pacific Theatre of the Second World War

defenceresearchLeave a comment

America, Russia, Britain, and Germany: Second World War Mobilisation in Global Perspective

Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Over the coming weeks, we will be posting entries written by some of the conference’s presenters. DR OLIVER WERNER Dr Werner is a Post-Doctoral… Read More America, Russia, Britain, and Germany: Second World War Mobilisation in Global Perspective

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Renegades in Malaya: Indian Volunteers of the Japanese, F. Kikan

Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective‘. Over the coming weeks, we will be posting blog articles written by some of the conference’s presenters. KEVIN NOLES This post examines the recruitment,… Read More Renegades in Malaya: Indian Volunteers of the Japanese, F. Kikan

benkienzleLeave a comment
#####EOF##### 1915 – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: 1915

German Defence of the Western Front, September-October 1915

by Dr ROBERT T. FOLEY For most in Britain, September 1915 is best remembered for the battle of Loos, which saw the first British use of poison gas and the first extensive use of Kitchener’s ‘new army divisions’ in battle. It is also remembered as a great ‘what-if’ of history, as British successes at Loos… Read More German Defence of the Western Front, September-October 1915

Robert T. Foley5 Comments

The Royal Flying Corps and Preparing for the Battle of Loos, 1915: Developing an Air Force

by Dr DAVID JORDAN In the introduction to his excellent book on the battle, my colleague Nick Lloyd observed that the battle of Loos remained forgotten, ‘lost in the myths of rumour, hearsay and myth’, even though it was the largest land battle that Britain had fought up until that point, and was marked by… Read More The Royal Flying Corps and Preparing for the Battle of Loos, 1915: Developing an Air Force

defenceresearch2 Comments

Defeating the Senussi (December 1915-March 1916): The appliance of science?

by Ewan Lawson The campaigns in the Western Desert in the Second World War are well known with locations like Sollum and Bir El Hakim having secured their place in history. What is less well known is that this area had previously been fought over some 25 years before during the Great War. Part of… Read More Defeating the Senussi (December 1915-March 1916): The appliance of science?

huwjdavies1 Comment

Towards Systematic Bombing: The Royal Flying Corps and Experience on the Western Front, 1915

In a recent post, Dr Nick Lloyd described 1915 as the ‘forgotten year‘ of the First World War. To correct this, in occasional posts throughout 2015 members of the First World War Research Group based in the Defence Studies Department will examine unknown or forgotten aspects of the war during 1915. by Dr IAN GOODERSON… Read More Towards Systematic Bombing: The Royal Flying Corps and Experience on the Western Front, 1915

defenceresearch1 Comment

From the Archives: A Disastrous Campaign: The US View of Gallipoli

by Dr ROBERT T. FOLEY On 25 April 1915, units of General Sir Ian Hamilton’s Mediterranean Expeditionary Force landed on the Gallipoli Peninsula. The goal of this force was to clear the peninsula of Turkish defenders, and in particular their heavy artillery, in order to allow an Anglo-French naval force to sweep the Dardanelles Straits… Read More From the Archives: A Disastrous Campaign: The US View of Gallipoli

Robert T. Foley3 Comments
#####EOF##### Syria – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Syria

The Russian military’s ‘permanent’ commitment in Syria and the Eastern Mediterranean

DR ROD THORNTON, Defence Studies Department, King’s College London The Russian military appears to be in Syria very much for the long haul. Indeed, the adjective ‘permanent’ [postoyannyi] has been applied by senior Russian political and military figures to describe both the presence of the Russian forces on land in Syria and the Russian Navy’s… Read More The Russian military’s ‘permanent’ commitment in Syria and the Eastern Mediterranean

benkienzle1 Comment

Resolving Conflict in Syria and other 21st Century Wars

ANGUS MCKEE is a diplomat in the Foreign & Commonwealth Office and a 2017 graduate of the Royal College of Defence Studies.  This post is based on his MA dissertation.  The views expressed in this paper are the author’s own, and do not necessarily reflect those of the UK Government.  Since Syria’s 2011 uprising spiralled… Read More Resolving Conflict in Syria and other 21st Century Wars

benkienzleLeave a comment

Syria’s ceasefire and the challenges of war termination

DR CHRIS TUCK The current ceasefire in Syria is under significant pressure and claims of local violations continue to grow. It has, at least, succeeded in reducing the scale of the fighting, which is welcome. The war has, since 2011, led to the deaths of over 300,000 people and displaced internally, or made refugees of,… Read More Syria’s ceasefire and the challenges of war termination

defenceresearch1 Comment

Why Islamic State is wrong: Sykes-Picot is not responsible for controversial borders in the Middle East – but the British military is (Part 2)

This is Part Two of a two part series on the topic by Dr. Rod Thornton. Dr Rod Thornton Throughout Ottoman times and from probably much earlier, it was the agricultural produce of the Mosul vilayet that fed the people of the less fertile vilayets of Baghdad and Basra. Finished-goods trade went the other way.… Read More Why Islamic State is wrong: Sykes-Picot is not responsible for controversial borders in the Middle East – but the British military is (Part 2)

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Why Islamic State is wrong: Sykes-Picot is not responsible for controversial borders in the Middle East – but the British military is (Part 1)

This is Part One of a two part series on Sykes-Picot and the controversial borders of the Middle East. Dr Rod Thornton The Sykes-Picot Agreement, reached during the First World War by Britain and France, has recently been given renewed prominence. This has come about with the claim by Islamic State (IS) that this accord… Read More Why Islamic State is wrong: Sykes-Picot is not responsible for controversial borders in the Middle East – but the British military is (Part 1)

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Syria: Bombing, Peace, and Then What?

BY DR CHRIS TUCK Stabilisation is out of fashion: burned by our experiences in Iraq and Afghanistan there seems precious little appetite for engagement any time soon in complex nation-building tasks. Instead, the new ‘concept du jour is ‘Building Stability Overseas,’ a term that encompasses stabilisation, but also a whole range of other more discrete… Read More Syria: Bombing, Peace, and Then What?

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Trump – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Trump

The Iran nuclear deal under Rouhani 2.0

An earlier version of the article was published by Aspenia Online. DR ANISEH BASSIRI TABRIZI On May 19, about 45 million Iranians participated in the twelfth presidential election, in which incumbent President Hassan Rouhani gained a determined majority of votes. The election was widely perceived as a referendum on the achievements of the Rouhani’s administration,… Read More The Iran nuclear deal under Rouhani 2.0

benkienzleLeave a comment

Tweet by Tweet: Trump’s Nuclear Musings

Dr. Heather Williams In a recent article titled ‘The nuclear education of Donald J. Trump’, Dr. Jeffrey Michaels and I catalogued almost all of President Trump’s statements regarding nuclear issues over the past thirty years. This catalogue included sources ranging from Playboy to Presidential debates. The study’s findings were both surprising and concerning. The research… Read More Tweet by Tweet: Trump’s Nuclear Musings

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Age of Uncertainty: US Foreign Policy in the Trump Era?

By Dr. Ellen Hallams and Dr. Tracey German In April 2016, Donald Trump declared ‘We must as a nation be more unpredictable.’ In a speech on foreign policy during the Republican primary campaign, Trump – who at that point was the front-runner for the GOP nomination – set out what the New York Times in… Read More The Age of Uncertainty: US Foreign Policy in the Trump Era?

defenceresearch1 Comment

Iran’s Afghanistan Policy: At odds with Trump?

By Dr. Amir M. Kamel The prospect of the US president-elect Donald Trump’s Administration has led to ripples across the international system, not least in the Middle East. Indeed, at the time of writing, Trump had pledged to reduce the US tendency to carry out foreign interventions. Significantly, this included harsh criticisms of the 2015… Read More Iran’s Afghanistan Policy: At odds with Trump?

amirmkamel1 Comment
#####EOF##### September 2014 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: September 2014

The Instrumentalisation of History

by DR HUW J DAVIES History is a dangerous thing. Parallels between contemporary events and history are all too easy to arrive at. In unskilled hands, historical events can be manhandled to seemingly deliver lessons and solutions to apparently intractable contemporary problems. This is ‘instrumentalising’ history. In reality, history can be misleading, its so-called ‘lessons’… Read More The Instrumentalisation of History

huwjdavies9 Comments

(Non)Western responses to Islamic Terrorism

by DR AMIR M. KAMEL The Islamic State’s (IS) rise to being at the forefront of global security concerns has prompted an increasingly united international response. The current cocktail coalition, which includes the US, France, Saudi Arabia and Jordan, among others, have agreed on the need to respond militarily to the terrorist threat. Additionally, Russia… Read More (Non)Western responses to Islamic Terrorism

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Operational Level of War and the Operational Art

by DR HUW J. DAVIES and DR ROBERT T. FOLEY In recent years, particularly since difficulties have been encountered in Afghanistan and Iraq, military thinkers and practitioners have begun questioning the existence of the operational level of war. Some argue that the articulation of the concept was a distraction from adequate attention to the tactical… Read More The Operational Level of War and the Operational Art

Robert T. Foley4 Comments

The Star Spangled Banner & the End of America’s First Cold War?

by DR HUW J. DAVIES Two hundred years ago, a small British force attacked the east coast of the United States, first burning Washington on 24 August, and then moving on to Baltimore, commencing a bombardment of Fort McHenry guarding the entrance to Baltimore Harbour on 13 September. The vision of the American flag lit… Read More The Star Spangled Banner & the End of America’s First Cold War?

huwjdaviesLeave a comment

The war against the Islamic State and the plight of Iraqi Kurdistan

  by BILL PARK The 10th June fall of Mosul to the irregular forces of the Islamic State of Iraq and Levant (ISIL), now calling itself the ‘Islamic State’, accompanied as it was by the total collapse of the lavishly equipped and US-trained Iraqi army, presented both threat and opportunity to the Kurdistan Regional Government… Read More The war against the Islamic State and the plight of Iraqi Kurdistan

billpark17101 Comment

FROM ‘CALLAN’ TO ‘JIHADI JOHN’

by DR GERAINT HUGHES On 19 August the militants of the Islamic State (IS) released a video showing the beheading of an American journalist, James Foley, who had been captured in Syria two years previously. Since their offensive into Northern Iraq in June 2014 IS has committed shocking atrocities against captured Iraqi soldiers and civilians.… Read More FROM ‘CALLAN’ TO ‘JIHADI JOHN’

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### Technology, Uncertainty, and Future War – Defence-In-Depth

Technology, Uncertainty, and Future War

CHRIS TUCK

In a paper published recently, I explore some of the challenges of thinking about technology and the future of war. We’ve seen in the world in the last fifty years or so what many consider to be an unprecedented rate of technological change, a process that seems to be speeding up. For example, the number of continuously internet-connected devices that communicate with one another is doubling every five years, a process building the phenomenon of the ‘internet of things.’The impact on human affairs of this process of change may prove to be profound, no more so than in the military sphere. War, after all, is often assumed to be a particularly technological human enterprise.

As I argue in my paper, however, our ability to determine with reasonable certainty what sort of future war it is that technology will shape is undermined by fundamental problems.

It would seem reasonable to assert that the role played by technology on future battlefields will depend to an important extent on the sorts of wars in which that technology will be used. High-intensity conventional conflicts, for example, might emphasise technology in a way that low-intensity, unconventional conflicts might not. But there is no consensus on what that future might be. Indeed, there may be as many different futures for technology in warfare as there are belligerents in the wars that are fought. Our future may therefore be very different from the futures of others because differences in national contexts can shape complex mixes of technological change and continuity in wars.

Even if the future of warfare is one of radical change, can we assume that technology will play a decisive role in driving that change? This question speaks to the lack of consensus on how and why military change occurs. The idea of a strong causal relationship between technological change and change on the battlefield is well established in military history. But actually, there is no consensus on the relationship between technology and change. Many writers have identified the importance, not so much of technology, but of ideas: that what matters in driving military change is howone uses technology, not necessarily technology itself. New technology often is simply appliquéd onto old ideas, reducing its impact. In the same vein, existing technology can effect profound change when it is used in new ways. Other perspectives have focused instead on the role played in driving military change by political, social and economic forces. So, to what extent will the future battlefield be shaped decisively by new technology; or by new ideas; or by broader strategic changes in society?

Moreover, technology rarely delivers as much in practice as it promises in theory because war is messy, physically testing, and it’s human. War is just too complex, too challenging, for technology to provide all of the answers. War is also by its nature adversarial and paradoxical. In war, strengths can become weaknesses because adversaries adapt. If technology lies at the root of our future strengths, then our enemies are likely to focus on ways of negating it. As one US official has noted: ‘capabilities create dependencies, and dependencies create vulnerabilities.’ The West’s increasing reliance on networks and digitisation, for example, invites enemies to crash these capabilities, perhaps through hacking, or electro-magnetic pulse devices, or the destruction of critical nodes. The reality of war in the future could consist of what’s left when our technology has failed us.

In addition, there is often a tendency in assessments of technology and the future to focus on the ways in which technology will allow us to do existing things better: the unconscious assumption being that technology will sustain current methods and techniques.As the strategist Colin Gray notes:  ‘In the technology realm in particular, there is a popular tendency to assume that the future will be like today, only more so.’ But technology often is disruptive, and the assumption that new technology will simply fit into existing military practices is actively dangerous. Technology may instead be disruptive, undermining current approaches in ways that may leave us floundering for alternative solutions.

In the end, we’re left with a range of critical and unanswered questions concerning technology and its ramifications for the future of war. It is possible that technology will revolutionise warfare; but we cannot assume that that is a probable outcome – nor can we be sure in what way technology will shape future warfare. There are legitimate questions to be asked regarding how accurate our ability is to see the future; regarding what kind of wars that technology will be used in; about what role technology might play in driving future change; about how effective technology will be in the future; and, even if technology is important, over the effects that it will have. In consequence, the more definitive is an assertion regarding the future of technology and warfare, the more suspicious we should be of it. History demonstrates that it is difficult to answer accurately any of these questions regarding the future. Today, there remains a lack of consensus on what the future holds; there is a marketplace of ideas on what the future will look like and what technology’s role might be in shaping it. One crumb of comfort is that these challenges affect everyone, including potential adversaries. There is no reason to assume that our enemies will be any better placed to predict the impact of technology than we are.

Image: The MQ-9 Reaper uses a multi-spectral assembly during a mission, via the US Air Force.

Leave a Reply

Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in:

Gravatar
WordPress.com Logo

You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Google photo

You are commenting using your Google account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Twitter picture

You are commenting using your Twitter account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Facebook photo

You are commenting using your Facebook account. ( Log Out /  Change )

Cancel

Connecting to %s

%d bloggers like this:
#####EOF##### Middle East – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: Middle East

Resolving Conflict in Syria and other 21st Century Wars

ANGUS MCKEE is a diplomat in the Foreign & Commonwealth Office and a 2017 graduate of the Royal College of Defence Studies.  This post is based on his MA dissertation.  The views expressed in this paper are the author’s own, and do not necessarily reflect those of the UK Government.  Since Syria’s 2011 uprising spiralled… Read More Resolving Conflict in Syria and other 21st Century Wars

benkienzleLeave a comment

Erdogan and the National Pact: the fallout today from the British Army’s seizing of Mosul in 1918

By Dr Rod Thornton Turkey’s President Recep Tayyip Erdogan has recently repeated his country’s long-held territorial claim to Mosul and the whole of northern Iraq. Such a claim is based on the belief prevalent in Turkey that this area had, as territory of the Ottoman empire, been illegally seized by the British in November 1918… Read More Erdogan and the National Pact: the fallout today from the British Army’s seizing of Mosul in 1918

defenceresearch1 Comment

Interesting times for the Gulf Arab monarchies

By DR DAVID B ROBERTS With its double meaning, the Chinese proverb ‘may you live in interesting times’ aptly describes the current mood in the Arab Gulf monarchies. These states (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates) are going through a period of intriguing flux. A range of long-held assumptions across… Read More Interesting times for the Gulf Arab monarchies

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Saudi Arabia and its anti-terror alliance

DR DAVID ROBERTS On 14 December 2015, Saudi Arabia’s Deputy Crown Prince and Defence Minister, Mohammed bin Salman al-Saud, called a press conference and announced the formation of a new thirty-four nation-strong Islamic military alliance that would be dedicated to countering the threat of terrorism around the wider Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region.… Read More Saudi Arabia and its anti-terror alliance

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…The Middle East and the Institutionalisation of ‘Least Bad’ Options

After a turbulent 2015, members of DSD’s Regional Security Research Centre (@KingsRegSec) look forward to the coming year and examine the issues that they believe will be prominent in 2016, including the US presidential elections, continuing instability across the Middle East and the various coalitions seeking to counter IS, talks between India and Pakistan on… Read More Reasons to (not) be cheerful in 2016…The Middle East and the Institutionalisation of ‘Least Bad’ Options

defenceresearch1 Comment
#####EOF##### May 2015 – Defence-In-Depth

Month: May 2015

Does new technology render strategic theory irrelevant?

by Dr. DAVID MORGAN-OWEN The impact of technology upon warfare is a complex topic, but one which retains perennial relevance to militaries the world over. Can new weapons fundamentally alter the conduct of war, or do certain immutable ‘principles’ remain unchanged over time? These questions cut to the heart of history’s value to the military… Read More Does new technology render strategic theory irrelevant?

davidmorganowen5 Comments

Mechanisms of Knowledge Exchange in the Eighteenth Century British Army

 by DR HUW J. DAVIES Over the last few months, I have written on a number of occasions about how the British Army learned from its experiences – successful and unsuccessful – during the wars of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. This is important because accepted historiographical analysis has it that the British Army was… Read More Mechanisms of Knowledge Exchange in the Eighteenth Century British Army

huwjdavies3 Comments

Behavioural Strategy: Exploring the Psychology of Strategy

by DR KENNETH PAYNE Behavioural economics is all the rage these days. Thanks in large part to the Nobel prize winning research of Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, economics has discovered some powerful insights about how humans really behave when it comes to making life choices. That is really behave, as opposed to the dominant approach hitherto, which was to assume… Read More Behavioural Strategy: Exploring the Psychology of Strategy

defenceresearchLeave a comment
#####EOF##### East meets West – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: East meets West

The Role of Neutrality in the Pacific Theatre of the Second World War

Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Defence in Depth has been crossposting some of the proceedings of the conference, of which you can find more here. PASCA LOTTAZ Pascal Lottaz… Read More The Role of Neutrality in the Pacific Theatre of the Second World War

defenceresearchLeave a comment

America, Russia, Britain, and Germany: Second World War Mobilisation in Global Perspective

Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Over the coming weeks, we will be posting entries written by some of the conference’s presenters. DR OLIVER WERNER Dr Werner is a Post-Doctoral… Read More America, Russia, Britain, and Germany: Second World War Mobilisation in Global Perspective

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Italian Navy and Japan: Strategy and Hopes, 1937-1942

Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Over the coming weeks, we will be posting entries written by some of the conference’s presenters. DR FABIO DE NINNO Dr Fabio De Ninno… Read More The Italian Navy and Japan: Strategy and Hopes, 1937-1942

defenceresearchLeave a comment

When Britain meets Free France: Coalition Warfare in French Equatorial Africa, January to August 1941

  Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Over the coming weeks, we will be posting entries written by some of the conference’s presenters. DR JULIE VALADE Dr Julie Valade is… Read More When Britain meets Free France: Coalition Warfare in French Equatorial Africa, January to August 1941

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The French Recruitment of Colonial Soldiers in Morocco after the German Occupation of Paris during the Second World War

Editorial Note: On 22-23 June 2017, the Second World War Research Group held its annual conference on the theme of ‘When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective’. Over the coming weeks, we will be posting entries written by some of the conference’s presenters.  Otman Bychou Otman Bychou is a teacher of… Read More The French Recruitment of Colonial Soldiers in Morocco after the German Occupation of Paris during the Second World War

defenceresearch1 Comment

Conference Report – When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective

You can learn more about the Second World War Research Group on their website and by following them on Twitter (@SWWresearch). DR RICHARD HAMMOND Since its formation in 2014, the Second World War Research Group has grown exponentially in terms of its membership, brand and executive.  From a humble beginning under two Co-Directors and a membership numbering… Read More Conference Report – When East meets West: The Second World War in Global Perspective

defenceresearch7 Comments
#####EOF##### US Foreign Policy – Defence-In-Depth

Tag: US Foreign Policy

Rising States, Declining States, and the Future of U.S.-Chinese Relations

PROF JOSHUA R. SHIFRINSON Josh Shifrinson is an Assistant Professor of International Relations with the Pardee School of Global Studies at Boston University. His book, Rising Titans, Falling Giants: How Great Powers Exploit Power Shifts was published with Cornell University Press in 2018 (a copy can be ordered here or here).  Additional research has appeared in International Security, the Journal of Strategic… Read More Rising States, Declining States, and the Future of U.S.-Chinese Relations

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Is the use of nuclear weapons more likely now? Well, yes…

DR ROD THORNTON Nuclear weapons are, it seems, becoming more and more of a factor in the thinking about how future major wars will be conducted. The recently released United States Nuclear Posture Review (NPR) points to the fact that Washington now wants to increase the size of its nuclear arsenal. Specifically, it seeks to… Read More Is the use of nuclear weapons more likely now? Well, yes…

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Despatch from Korea: reflections on this Summer’s crisis

DR MIKE FINCH Donald Trump’s war of words with Kim Jong-Un’s North Korea has dominated the international news cycle for the last several weeks. Yet here in South Korea if you didn’t turn on the news channels, you wouldn’t know it. There is no public panic. There are no obvious signs of intensified military activity.… Read More Despatch from Korea: reflections on this Summer’s crisis

defenceresearchLeave a comment

Trump v. Kim: A Test of Wills Over the Korean Peninsula

DR PAUL D. MILLER Paul D. Miller is the associate director of the Clements Center for National Security at The University of Texas at Austin. He served on the NSC staff as Director for Afghanistan and Pakistan from 2007 to 2009. North Korea is a perennial candidate for America’s next war and a regular contender… Read More Trump v. Kim: A Test of Wills Over the Korean Peninsula

defenceresearchLeave a comment

The Age of Uncertainty: US Foreign Policy in the Trump Era?

By Dr. Ellen Hallams and Dr. Tracey German In April 2016, Donald Trump declared ‘We must as a nation be more unpredictable.’ In a speech on foreign policy during the Republican primary campaign, Trump – who at that point was the front-runner for the GOP nomination – set out what the New York Times in… Read More The Age of Uncertainty: US Foreign Policy in the Trump Era?

defenceresearch1 Comment
#####EOF#####